Science
Wildfires can release more energy than an atomic bomb. No wonder they look apocalyptic
The first full weekend of September, with the Line fire 20,000 acres in size and only 3% contained, a resident of San Bernardino County described the sky as looking “exactly like a nuclear warhead had been set off.”
On a basic level, this makes sense: By that point, the Line fire had already released more energy into the atmosphere than a dozen atomic bombs. And just as nuclear blasts produce a distinctive mushroom cloud, uncontrolled wildfires can be powerful enough to generate their own weather.
When wood and other vegetation combust, it they produce four main compounds: carbon dioxide, smoke (itself a mix of toxic ingredients like carbon monoxide, methane, benzene and many more), heat and water vapor. Of those, carbon dioxide is the least relevant to the local weather — while it plays a major role in the global climate, that is more because of its long lifespan rather than its immediate potency.
The most notable consequence of smoke emission is its dangerous effects for human health.
A plume of smoke can extend hundreds or thousands of miles as it’s carried by wind currents. In addition, smoke aerosols block and scatter sunlight, causing the surreal “red sun” effect that shows up in apocalyptic-seeming pictures on social media; their optical properties also tend to suppress precipitation in downwind locations, which may (in the long term) fuel more fires because of drier conditions.
Billowing smoke from the Line fire, right, and Airport fire, left, obscure the sun and turn the sky an apocalyptic hue of orange.
(Gina Ferazzi/Los Angeles Times)
The next byproduct of fire is heat — like the burner in a hot air balloon, the wildfire causes the bottom layer of the atmosphere to become less dense and therefore rise. As the air over the fire is lifted, air from the outside rushes in to replace it, thereby supplying the fire with the oxygen that allows it to continue burning.
If the fire is powerful enough, it can produce a “firestorm.” This occurs when all the winds surrounding a conflagration are directed toward the fire’s center, leading to a feedback effect: more oxygen produces more intense flames, which in turn pull in even more oxygen.
These winds have a mixed effect on the fire’s ability to spread — on the one hand, the gusts are directed inward, meaning that sparks are less likely to be pushed outward. On the other hand, the strong updrafts can catch hold of burning embers, lofting them into unburned material, where they can produce “spot fires” up to several miles away from the fireline.
Moreover, a firestorm can radiate heat so intense that it becomes impossible for firefighters to operate in its vicinity. Firestorms have been observed not only during wildfires but also during World War II when bombed cities — such as Dresden, Germany, and Hiroshima, Japan, —experienced far more destruction from resultant fires than from the initial bombing.
The final ingredient is water vapor.
As the hot air rises higher in the atmosphere, the water vapor released by combustion will condense, aided by the presence of smoke particles that act as “condensation nuclei” and allow the water to form droplets. This condensation produces more heat, leading to even more powerful convection, and the end result is known as a pyrocumulus (or, in more extreme cases, pyrocumulonimbus) cloud.
These clouds often signal trouble for firefighters trying to contain the blaze — not just because they indicate that the fire is gaining strength, but also because the dangerous conditions and low visibility within the cloud prevent the use of aircraft to fight the fire. In addition, these clouds can produce frequent lightning strikes, which ignite new fires in the area.
One saving grace is that the pyrocumulus clouds can produce rain, which in some cases will suppress the very fire that created them. However, depending on wind conditions, this rain sometimes evaporates before it reaches the ground because of the hot, dry environment surrounding the fire.
If this occurs, it can produce a “downburst” as cold, dense air descends rapidly out of the cloud. Just like the updrafts, this feeds the fire with fresh, oxygenated air; unlike updrafts, downbursts cause gusts that billow out away from the center of the fire, leading it to spread rapidly in multiple directions at once.
A pyrocumulonimbus is the ultimate extreme pyrocumulus cloud.
(Paul Duginski / Los Angeles Times)
What does all this mean for Southern California?
Fortunately, large-scale firestorms are almost unheard-of in the area, in part because the region’s narrow canyons and strong prevailing winds act to direct gusts — and therefore fires — in specific directions. Less fortunately, both factors can act to speed fire spread and promote pyrocumulus formation.
Structures on the top of hills and ridges are at heightened risk, since fires can move up to eight times faster when they are climbing steep slopes than they do on flat land, and lightning strikes from pyrocumulonimbus clouds are more likely to strike elevated locations.
With the National Interagency Fire Center predicting above normal fire potential along the Southern California coast through the end of the year, there is a strong likelihood that more fires are on the way for the region in the coming months.
The feedback between wildfires and their environment can cause rapid and unpredictable shifts in the fires’ direction and intensity, so it is vital for residents to remain alert during high-risk periods.
Our universe might be chock-full of cosmic wonder, but you can observe only a fraction of astronomical phenomena with the naked eye. Meteor showers, natural fireworks that streak brightly across the night sky, are one of them.
The latest observable meteor shower will be the Lyrids, which has been active since April 14 and is forecast to continue through April 30. The shower reaches its peak April 21 to 22, or Tuesday night into Wednesday morning.
According to NASA, the Lyrids are one of the oldest known meteor showers, and have been enjoyed by stargazers for nearly 3,000 years. Their bright, speedy streaks are caused by the dusty debris from a comet named Thatcher. They appear to spring from the constellation Lyra, which right now can be seen in the eastern sky at night in the Northern Hemisphere.
The moon will be about 27 percent full tonight, appearing as a thick crescent in the sky, according to the American Meteor Society.
To get a hint at when to best watch for the Lyrids, you can use this tool, which relies on data from the Global Meteor Network. It shows fireball activity levels in real time.
And while you gaze at the heavens, keep an eye out for other stray meteors streaking across the night sky. Skywatchers are reporting that the amount of fireballs is double what is usually seen by this point in the year.
Where meteor showers come from
There is a chance you might see a meteor on any given night, but you are most likely to catch one during a shower. Meteor showers are caused by Earth passing through the rubble trailing a comet or asteroid as it swings around the sun. This debris, which can be as small as a grain of sand, leaves behind a glowing stream of light as it burns up in Earth’s atmosphere.
Meteor showers occur around the same time every year and can last for days or weeks. But there is only a small window when each shower is at its peak, which happens when Earth reaches the densest part of the cosmic debris. The peak is the best time to look for a shower. From our point of view on Earth, the meteors will appear to come from the same point in the sky.
The Perseid meteor shower, for example, peaks in mid-August from the constellation Perseus. The Geminids, which occur every December, radiate from the constellation Gemini.
How to watch a meteor shower
Michelle Nichols, the director of public observing at the Adler Planetarium in Chicago, recommends forgoing the use of telescopes or binoculars while watching a meteor shower.
“You just need your eyes and, ideally, a dark sky,” she said.
That’s because meteors can shoot across large swaths of the sky, so observing equipment can limit your field of view.
Some showers are strong enough to produce up to 100 streaks an hour, according to the American Meteor Society, though you probably won’t see that many.
“Almost everybody is under a light-polluted sky,” Ms. Nichols said. “You may think you’re under a dark sky, but in reality, even in a small town, you can have bright lights nearby.”
Planetariums, local astronomy clubs or even maps like this one can help you figure out where to go to escape excessive light. The best conditions for catching a meteor shower are a clear sky with no moon or cloud cover, sometime between midnight and sunrise. (Moonlight affects visibility in the same way as light pollution, washing out fainter sources of light in the sky.) Make sure to give your eyes at least 30 minutes to adjust to seeing in the dark.
Ms. Nichols also recommends wearing layers, even during the summer. “You’re going to be sitting there for quite a while, watching,” she said. “It’s going to get chilly, even in August.”
Bring a cup of cocoa or tea for even more warmth. Then lie back, scan the sky and enjoy the show.
Where weather is least likely to affect your view
Storm systems sweep across the country in early spring, and some will be obscuring skies tonight. But there will still be plenty of areas with clear skies, particularly in parts of the central United States.
“The best spot is going to be in the Upper Midwest,” said Rich Bann, a meteorologist with the Weather Prediction Center.
Minnesota, Wisconsin and Iowa will offer especially good sky-viewing weather and a beach on the Great Lakes could be a nice spot to look up at the stars.
But don’t expect to view the show from Chicago, as Illinois could see some thunderstorms. The weather will be better in the Northern and Central Plains, particularly the eastern Dakotas.
High, wispy clouds are expected over the Ohio and Tennessee Valleys and into parts of the Mid-Atlantic. But, Mr. Bann said, “you may be able to see some shooting stars through thin clouds.”
Clouds will be draped across much of the Southeast and the Northeast, though there could be some clearing in Florida, Georgia, the Carolinas and Virginia. Remember, the meteors could be visible all night long. If you look outside and see clouds, try again later.
Catching the spectacle will be challenging across much of the West, particularly from Washington into Northern California, where a storm system is bringing rain and snow. That system will move east overnight.
There are likely to be some pockets of clear skies at times across southern Nevada, northwest Arizona and southwest Utah, Mr. Bann said.
Amy Graff contributed reporting.
WASHINGTON — Amid growing national security concerns, the FBI said Tuesday that it has launched a broad investigation in the deaths or disappearances of at least 10 scientists and staff connected to highly sensitive research, including four from the Los Angeles area.
“The FBI is spearheading the effort to look for connections into the missing and deceased scientists. We are working with the Department of Energy, Department of War, and with our state and state and local law enforcement partners to find answers,” the agency said in a statement.
The FBI’s announcement comes after the House Oversight Committee announced that it would investigate reports of the disappearance and deaths of the scientists, sending letters seeking information from the agencies involved in the federal inquiry as well as NASA, which owns the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in La Cañada Flintridge, where three of the missing or dead scientists worked.
“If the reports are accurate, these deaths and disappearances may represent a grave threat to U.S. national security and to U.S. personnel with access to scientific secrets,” Reps. James Comer (R-Ky.), chairman of the committee, and Eric Burlison (R-Mo.) wrote in the letters.
President Trump told reporters last week that he had been briefed on the missing and dead scientists, which he described as “pretty serious stuff.” He said at the time that he expected answers on whether the deaths were connected “in the next week and a half.”
Michael David Hicks, who studied comets and asteroids at JPL, was the first of the scientists who disappeared or died. He died on July 30, 2023, at the age of 59. No cause of death was disclosed.
A year later, JPL physicist Frank Maiwald died at 61, with no cause of death disclosed.
Two other Los Angeles scientists are part of the string of deaths and disappearances.
On June 22, 2025, Monica Jacinto Reza, a materials scientist at JPL, disappeared while on a hike near Mt. Waterman in the San Gabriel Mountains.
On Feb. 16, Caltech astrophysicist Carl Grillmair was fatally shot on the porch of his Llano home. The Los Angeles County Sheriff’s department arrested Freddy Snyder, 29, in connection with the shooting. Snyder had been arrested in December on suspicion of trespassing on Grillmair’s property.
Snyder has been charged with murder.
There is no evidence at this point that the deaths and disappearances, which occurred over a span of four years, are connected.
A spokesperson for NASA, which owns JPL, said in a statement on X that the agency is “coordinating and cooperating with the relevant agencies in relation to the missing scientists.
“At this time, nothing related to NASA indicates a national security threat,” agency spokesperson Bethany Stevens wrote. “The agency is committed to transparency and will provide more information as able.”
Representatives from Caltech, which manages JPL, did not immediately respond to a request for comment.
The sun had barely risen over the Pacific Ocean when a small motorboat carrying a team of Indigenous artisans and Mexican biologists dropped anchor in a rocky cove near Bahías de Huatulco.
Mauro Habacuc Avendaño Luis, one of the craftsmen, was the first to wade to shore. With an agility belying his age, he struck out over the boulders exposed by low tide. Crouching on a slippery ledge pounded by surf, he reached inside a crevice between two rocks. There, lodged among the urchins, was a snail with a knobby gray shell the size of a walnut. The sight might not dazzle tourists who travel here to see humpback whales, but for Mr. Avendaño, 85, these drab little mollusks represent a way of life.
Marine snails in the genus Plicopurpura are sacred to the Mixtec people of Pinotepa de Don Luis, a small town in southwestern Oaxaca. Men like Mr. Avendaño have been sustainably “milking” them for radiant purple dye for at least 1,500 years. The color suffuses Mixtec textiles and spiritual beliefs. Called tixinda, it symbolizes fertility and death, as well as mythic ties between lunar cycles, women and the sea.
The future of these traditions — and the fate of the snails — are uncertain. The mollusks are subject to intense poaching pressure despite federal protections intended to protect them. Fishermen break them (and the other mollusks they eat) open and sell the meat to local restaurants. Tourists who comb the beaches pluck snails off the rocks and toss them aside.
A severe earthquake in 2020 thrust formerly submerged parts of their habitat above sea level, fatally tossing other mollusks in the snail’s food web to the air, and making once inaccessible places more available to poachers.
Decades ago, dense clusters of snails the size of doorknobs were easy to find, according to Mr. Avendaño. “Full of snails,” he said, sweeping a calloused, violet-stained hand across the coves. Now, most of the snails he finds are small, just over an inch, and yield only a few milliliters of dye.
-
Movie Reviews9 minutes ago‘I Swear’ Review – Heart Sans Sap, Cursing Aplenty
-
World21 minutes ago
How Sheila the three-wheeler dodged danger on a record 14,000-mile journey to tip of South Africa
-
News27 minutes agoHere’s What the New Virginia House Map Looks Like
-
Politics33 minutes agoTucker Carlson Says He Is ‘Tormented’ by His Past Support for Trump
-
Business39 minutes agoDevin Nunes Departs Trump Media After 4 Years as C.E.O.
-
Science45 minutes agoLyrids Meteor Shower: How to Watch, Peak Time and Weather Forecast
-
Health51 minutes agoGLP-1s Don’t Work for Everyone: What To Know if You’re Not Seeing Results
-
Culture1 hour agoPoetry Challenge Day 3: W.H. Auden, The Poet and His Technique