Education
Why U.S. Test Scores Are in a ‘Generation-Long Decline’
Something troubling is happening in U.S. education.
Almost everywhere in America, students are performing worse than their peers were 10 years ago, according to new, district-level test score data released Wednesday by the Educational Opportunity Project at Stanford.
Compared with a decade earlier, reading scores were down last year in 83 percent of school districts where data was available. Math scores were down in 70 percent. The declines have affected both rich and poor districts, and crossed racial and geographic divides.
The new data provides the first national comparison of school districts through 2025, and offers a detailed picture of how individual school districts have performed over time. It underscores that many districts have experienced a long-term slump in student achievement, not just a blip during the pandemic.
From 2017 to 2019, students lost as much ground in reading as they did during the pandemic, and reading scores continued to fall at a similar rate through 2024.
Immediately after the pandemic, there was hope that students would recover quickly. The new data shows that scores inched upward in reading last year, and have climbed more steadily in math since 2022. But it has been nowhere near enough to make up for lost ground, researchers said.
The biggest losses have been among the lowest-achieving students.
“I cannot be more emphatic: This is an enormous problem that’s not getting enough attention,” said Nat Malkus, a senior fellow studying education policy at the American Enterprise Institute.
A report on the new data describes a decade-long “learning recession.” It was released Wednesday by the Education Scorecard, a joint project by Sean Reardon at the Stanford group; Thomas Kane at the Center for Education Policy Research at Harvard; and Douglas Staiger at Dartmouth.
The data includes third- through eighth-grade test scores for districts in 40 states and the District of Columbia, as of the end of last school year. It accounts for about 68 percent of U.S. school districts nationwide. (Ten states were excluded, among them New York and Illinois, because of high opt-out rates or noncomparable data.)
Education experts say there is no single reason for the declines. But the timing provides some clues.
Students’ test scores had been increasing since 1990 — then abruptly stopped in the mid-2010s. That coincided with two events: an easing of federal school accountability under No Child Left Behind, which was replaced in 2015, and the rise of smartphones, social media and personalized school laptops.
The pandemic then accelerated learning declines, especially for the poorest students. Some pandemic effects have lingered. Student absenteeism, for example, remains higher than prepandemic.
Nationwide declines
In one in three school districts in the United States, students are reading a full grade level lower than they were in 2015.
Only a few states, like Mississippi, have avoided the plunge.
Math scores declined more steeply during pandemic school closures but also started rebounding more quickly. Researchers say that’s probably because math is more affected by what happens in school, while reading skills can be developed at home.
Test scores in low-income districts fell furthest, but affluent districts — the types of places families move to for the schools — also lost ground. The changes might not be as evident, because many children are still far above grade level. Yet among the richest districts, more than half have lower test scores compared with a decade ago.
“There are a lot of people in affluent districts who think things are just fine, who have seen big losses over time,” said Professor Kane, the lead author of the report.
The districts with the least improvement since the pandemic, however, were middle-income districts, according to the analysis.
Poor districts received the most pandemic aid from the federal government, which the report concluded helped their recovery. In the richest districts, families have more money to supplement academics outside of school.
The end of federal accountability
Some experts believe that the end of No Child Left Behind, the contentious school accountability law signed by President George W. Bush in 2002, explains some of the recent test score declines.
The law set a goal that all students would be proficient in reading and math, and schools that did not show progress could face penalties. It coincided with a period of rising test scores, especially in math, though reading scores improved more modestly. Low-performing students saw the biggest gains.
The law, though, was deeply unpopular with many educators and parents. Critics said it put an outsize focus on testing, pushing schools to teach to the test and spend less time on other important subjects, like the arts or social studies. In 2015, Congress replaced it, and many states dialed back on requirements.
Like many who have studied the law, Brian A. Jacob, professor of education policy at the University of Michigan, showed that it increased test scores but had problematic elements.
“It was not a cure-all, but I think it really did improve student achievement,” he said. “There’s evidence that school accountability does change behaviors of teachers and administrators and probably parents and students.”
Beyond the policy specifics, its passage reflected a nationwide, bipartisan push to improve education, some experts said, that the country seems to have lost in its absence.
Yet some other countries have seen similar declines in scores, suggesting additional factors may be at play.
Screens, screens everywhere
Something happened globally around the same time: the proliferation of devices, at home and in school.
Nearly half of American teenagers now say they are online “almost constantly,” compared with just under a quarter who said that a decade ago, according to Pew Research Center. Virtually all schools give children laptops or tablets in class, as early as kindergarten.
Few rigorous studies have teased out the role of devices in academic outcomes. Yet educators say there’s no question that swiping has decreased students’ focus and persistence, and time on devices has displaced time spent reading or studying. Far more teenagers — nearly one in three — now say they “never or hardly ever” read for fun.
In turn, schools expect less from students, assigning fewer whole books and simplifying the curriculum, said Carol Jago, associate director of the California Reading and Literature Project at the University of California, Los Angeles.
“There’s no other way, except volume, in order to become a really proficient, fluent, avid reader,” she said.
Radnor Township, an affluent district outside Philadelphia, is one of the highest scoring in Pennsylvania. Teachers still expect students to read full books, including novels like “To Kill a Mockingbird.” The vast majority of students are proficient readers. Still, fewer score at an advanced level on state tests — under 40 percent last year, down from 51 percent in 2015.
It’s harder to keep students’ attention, even after the district banned personal phones and smartwatches during the school day, said Sharon Schaefer, assistant to the superintendent: “We know screens are so stimulating to our students.”
Researchers said a rise in mental health issues and learning disabilities may also play a role in declining achievement, as could changing expectations toward education. The share of Americans who say college is very important has fallen to a record low, 35 percent, according to Gallup, nearly half what it was a decade ago.
Still, some districts are making uncommon gains.
What could help
In 2015, Compton Unified, a poor district south of Los Angeles, was scoring 2.5 grade levels below the national average in math and reading. Today, its students are about at the national average, according to the new data.
The superintendent, Darin Brawley, said one reason was a focus on getting children to come to school every day. It’s a topic at his regular meetings with small groups of principals. In Compton, just 5 percent of students are chronically absent, compared with an estimated 23 percent nationally.
Superintendent Brawley credited a number of other strategies, including giving short, weekly quizzes to assess student learning and using the results to identify students who need tutoring. The tutoring happens during the school day — not after school — an approach he says is crucial for reaching the neediest students.
Washington, D.C., another district with test score gains, has also invested in tutoring, and was an early adopter of the science of reading, which emphasizes direct, sequential teaching of phonics, vocabulary and other skills.
The new report found that science of reading reforms were necessary, but not sufficient, to improve scores. Only states that had embraced science of reading reforms showed improvement from 2022 to 2025 — yet not all of those that did saw gains.
Washington, D.C., has also taken more unusual measures trying to find “the right recipe,” said Lewis D. Ferebee, the chancellor. Teachers who are deemed highly effective, a rating that includes raising test scores, are eligible for bonuses up to $25,000. Teachers receive a bigger bonus for working in the highest-need schools.
But in many places, addressing the “academic, generation-long decline” doesn’t seem to be a priority, said Mr. Malkus of the American Enterprise Institute.
“I think the thing that’s going to haunt us, whenever Congress and some states wake up to what’s going on,” he said, “is that it wasn’t the pandemic.”
Education
Luna Lab Is Building a Future for Female Composers
Luna Lab is far from the only program for young composers in the United States. Besides conservatory classes, there is the Los Angeles Philharmonic’s Composer Fellowship Program, open to all high-school students from sophomore to senior year, and Wildflower Composers, which provides mentorship to female, transgender, nonbinary and genderqueer early career composers.
What’s different about Luna Lab, Mazzoli said, is its commitment to its alumni. Reid and Mazzoli remain available to former fellows for advice and networking. Yuri Lee, 21, who was in the program from 2018-19, consulted with them about where to go to college, for example. She had studied composition in Juilliard’s Preparatory Division and it was her “dream school” for college. Reid and Mazzoli — and her teachers at Juilliard — encouraged her to attend Princeton University instead, for a well-rounded undergraduate education.
Luna Lab alumni can apply for stipends, from the Toulmin Luna Composition Lab Alumni Fund, that can be applied to creating recordings, producing concerts, purchasing software, creating a website and more. Alumni can apply more than once and can receive a total of $5,000 over time.
The nonprofit also furthers alumni careers through commissions from partner organizations and special projects like 25 for 25: A New Time for Choral Music. For that, the Cincinnati May Festival, celebrating its 150th anniversary, collaborated with Luna Lab to commission 25 works by alumni for 25 different choral ensembles.
About three-quarters of Luna Lab alumni who attend college have studied composition, and virtually all continue to be involved with music. Many have gone on to graduate school in composition. And Mazzoli and Reid say they can foresee a time when alumni will be ready to return as mentors.
For many of the alumni, the Luna Lab fellowship was life-changing. Maya Miro Johnson, 25, a 2017-18 fellow, said that its impact on her life was “incalculable, because I would not be a musician or a composer.” Growing up in a low-income family in Utah, she did have dance and violin lessons as a child but, she said, she was not good at the violin.
Education
Cursive Club, Where Students Learn With a Flourish
Chris Kobara stood in front of an electronic white board in his New York City high school, practicing with a swoop of his pen the connection between the “a” and “r” in his name.
He stepped back and looked at the board with Suzanne Finman, his English teacher, who had been coaching him.
“If it’s readable, it’s something,” he said, displeased with his effort.
Mr. Kobara, 18, was one of six students who gathered after school in Ms. Finman’s classroom at the Urban Assembly Early College High School of Emergency Medicine on a recent afternoon to practice signing their names in cursive.
The students, all of them high school seniors, filled sheets with their names, at times comparing the flourishes they added to their letters.
The club is one of several that have been established in recent years at schools and libraries across the country where children are learning cursive in extracurricular clubs.
Cursive was eliminated from the Common Core standards in 2010, and now many children can’t sign their names, write checks or read historical documents written in cursive, such as the Declaration of Independence.
In a 2016 interview with Education Week, Sue Pimentel, who helped shape the Common Core state standards for English and language arts, said a higher priority had been placed on students learning how to use technology than learning cursive.
While some states have restored cursive writing to their curriculums, some students in states where it remains excluded have sought ways to learn the skill outside school.
“Knowing how to write your name in script is really important,” Mr. Kobara said. “Everybody should know how to write in script.”
He’s been practicing his signature for several weeks after school, perfecting a loop in the “C” of his first name, and plans to write thank you notes to teachers in cursive.
It started with the students’ curiosity.
“When students see me take my own notes in cursive, they immediately ask me to write their name in cursive and then they ask me to teach it to them,” Ms. Finman said. “This has happened a lot over the years, so I asked, ‘Could I teach you this in a cursive club?’”
While some students are learning in extracurricular clubs at school, others are finding their penmanship lessons at libraries.
Mandi Whipple, a librarian who specializes in young adult books at the public library in Blackstone, Mass., was inspired to start a cursive club last year after one of her colleagues observed that her grandchildren couldn’t read cursive writing.
Now, a group of students meets at the library for an hour every Thursday to practice the looping script of their letters.
“The ones that have stuck with it are now writing full sentences,’ Miss Whipple said. “They’re really into it.”
A cursive program at Abington Community Library in Clarks Summit, Pa., has a defined curriculum that children follow for eight weeks, focusing on a few letters each week.
“We show them how to do it and they can copy us on paper,” Leigh-Ann Puchalski, the children’s librarian said. “Then we do practice where they practice on worksheets. Then, to make it fun, we add different types of sensory elements.”
The children can trace letters in salt with their fingers, use magnetized drawing boards called Magna Doodles, and write in gel pens to make it fun, Mrs. Puchalski said.
The program has been so popular that it has had a wait-list, she said.
With the 250th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence this year, Mrs. Puchalski is emphasizing the historical side of cursive and having children trace the Constitution.
“For one of the sessions we’ll use parchment paper,” Mrs. Puchalski said. “I did actually order the refillable fountain pens.”
In Pennsylvania, cursive won’t be a relic of the past much longer. Gov. Josh Shapiro signed a bill in February to reintroduce it in schools, joining at least 23 other states that have started to require that it be taught in schools. New Jersey is reintroducing cursive for the 2026-27 school year. Idaho brought it back last year.
Cursive is not just for signing checks. It also has a scientific advantage.
“When you form those intricate letters, those motor patterns on paper, it actually requires much more of the brain, and the brain is much more active and it’s more stimulating for the brain than to type letters on the keyboard,” said Audrey van der Meer, a brain researcher and professor of psychology at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology.
Dr. van der Meer conducted a study of 140 students who were quizzed after a lecture by their professor. Those who took notes by hand scored better on the quiz than those who typed their notes, she said.
For Jasmyn Rios, 17, learning cursive is a point of pride.
“My I.D. signature looks crazy, it’s a mess,” she said, while writing her name repeatedly on a piece of paper. “I wanted to come so when I do have to sign those professional documents, I’m not embarrassed.”
Ms. Rios said that she’s had to sign her name several times as she prepares to go to college, and that she was concerned about how her handwriting would look once she is in the professional world, she said.
Cursive “should be taught fundamentally in elementary schools,” she said. “I think it covers a lot more than just having professional writing — just being confident in what you’re writing when you’re writing it.”
Education
How Brandeis Is Trying to Change College Shopping
You don’t get to know for sure what college will cost until you apply and get in. Colleges provide tools that help you guess what kind of financial aid they might offer, if any, but the numbers are often off by many thousands of dollars.
The fact that this real price is a mystery for most people at most schools is disgraceful. It also presents an opportunity.
A few weeks ago, Brandeis University quietly introduced a new tool for college shoppers called Faye. It asks questions like a person would, digests high school transcripts and tax returns, then tells you “what your Brandeis cost will be” if you get in, including both need-based and merit aid.
“Will” suggests certainty. And certainty is decidedly not what colleges offer with the net price calculators that federal law requires them to provide applicants. Those calculators are the tools that lead to sticker shock when an admission offer arrives with an actual price that is far higher than the calculators’ estimates.
I don’t know of any schools that do what Brandeis is trying. It may not work, and it may backfire in a couple of different ways. But the fact that the school is even trying it is a kind of victory for anyone who has ever wailed in agony over the complexity of college pricing and the futility of trying to figure it out.
The person who signed off on Faye (as in F.A., or financial aid) is Arthur Levine, the Brandeis president. The son of a South Bronx mailman, he was able to attend Brandeis himself in the late 1960s only because a well-off relative helped.
Dr. Levine did not come up with Faye. He has long been pals with John Katzman, whose name will be familiar to Gen X-ers who took his Princeton Review SAT classes. Mr. Katzman’s punk-rock approach to test preparation over the years, which included trying to trade his archrival’s internet address for a case of beer, made him a folk hero to students and an irritant to people in power.
I first met Mr. Katzman in the 1990s when Random House republished, under its Princeton Review imprint, an out-of-print book about gap years that I had co-written. But we hadn’t spoken in about 25 years until he emailed about Brandeis. He’s no longer affiliated with Princeton Review and started a higher-education company called Noodle in 2013.
He shopped the upfront pricing idea around for a while before trying it on Dr. Levine. But it was slow to gain traction because real pricing, pre-application, is just not how things are done in the residential undergraduate education industry.
To get any kind of a binding price under the current system, you generally must apply and get in. Then, perhaps you appeal for a better offer, if the school can digest your appeal in time. This year, Northeastern could not for some students.
And then, more! Maybe a different college surprises you with an even better offer — even after the May 1 decision deadline.
To call it a goat rodeo is to engage in a kind of goatism.
Brandeis’s enrollment team was well aware of this mess. But its members weren’t sure there was any overarching fix, given regulatory and other constraints, and they greeted Mr. Katzman with arched eyebrows.
“We thought he was nuts,” said Sherri Avery, assistant vice president of student financial services at Brandeis.
“If it could be done, someone would have been doing it, right?” said her boss, Jennifer Walker, vice president for enrollment management.
“And we wanted to do it,” Ms. Avery added.
Mr. Katzman’s premise was simple. Most need-based and merit aid calculations are formulaic and algorithmic, even if they differ at least a bit from one another. Ever-evolving technology ought to be able to handle it.
Faye is simple to use, and the price quotes it produced in my tests were easy to understand. What gave me pause was that the word “guarantee” did not appear anywhere near the dollar figure. One recent test triggered an email that was supposed to confirm Faye’s “will pay” price, but it referred to the number as a “projection.”
In my first meeting with the Noodle team, the G word came up repeatedly. Since then, however, the Brandeis and Noodle wordsmiths struggled mightily before they settled on the “will pay” language.
Why no guarantee? Blame the lawyers, who demanded asterisks that the team thought would be off-putting.
Indeed, there will be situations — estranged parents who won’t submit tax returns, small-business owners in various circumstances — that will require human intervention. A “will pay” offer could still come, but from humans, later, and not from Faye right away.
Then, there’s Faye’s garbage-in, garbage-out rule: If you make an error, it’s on you. If you lie, Brandeis won’t honor the quote. And if the software messes up, Brandeis reserves the right to re-price your deal.
There’s more. If your child is a high school sophomore or younger, the “will” does not apply, since your finances may change and Brandeis’s list price will for sure.
Brandeis may also change its merit aid formula if the school becomes more popular. It received 40 percent more applications this year, which may give the school enough marketplace power to offer fewer merit aid discounts. (Merit aid for current students doesn’t change from year to year as long as they keep their grades up and finish within eight semesters.)
And finally, if your household income or assets change drastically during your time at the school, your net price might, too, if you receive need-based financial aid.
So much throat clearing. So many maybes. All these asterisks make the whole endeavor seem asterisky, and it is.
If you’re a school, any big change in how you sell can alter who will matriculate and what they can and will pay. If net tuition revenue per student then plummets, you have an enormous problem. Competitors will scrutinize Brandeis’s tool, and some of them may undercut its prices.
And if enough people use the tool but can’t get sensible offers, the university loses them before they even apply. Application numbers could fall as quickly as they rose.
“That’s hard,” Mr. Katzman said. “But it’s the same hard as every airline and hotel and everyone in the real world has to deal with. I have to set a price, and I have to tell people what it costs.”
That’s the other reason there is no “guarantee.” College-pricing nerds like me think the word is a solution to what ails higher education. But in Faye’s testing, the word generated more questions than excitement among parents and students, and there was a risk that it might sound gimmicky.
So if you are a college shopper, test Faye mercilessly. If your finances seem broken, try to break Brandeis with your complex situation.
And save that “will pay” price quote. If you apply to Brandeis and get in, send me a note and let me know if the price changed.
But before then, ask this when you talk to other colleges: Why won’t you tell me what you will charge, pre-application? Heck, do it in the group information session in front of 100 other people. Maybe the school will surprise you.
Some institutions will make this work eventually, even if it isn’t Brandeis. And hats off to Cornell College, Whitman College and the College of Wooster, which have their own transparency initiatives.
Ms. Avery and Ms. Walker no longer think Mr. Katzman is crazy. And over lunch in March, they talked about the risk that their price quotes could scare people away.
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