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Gender bias in access to finance and implications for capital misallocation

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Access to finance is essential for firm growth, yet women-led businesses often face significant barriers. Both demand-side barriers, such as social and cultural norms affecting female entrepreneurs’ ability to apply for credit, and supply-side barriers, including loan officers’ implicit biases against women, contribute to these gender gaps (Asiedu et al. 2013, Alesina et al. 2013). Additionally, contextual factors such as regulatory and legal restrictions, social perceptions, and gender-based violence further constrain the growth of women-led firms (Ubfal 2023). This column summarises the findings of our recent paper (Grover and Viollaz 2025) that systematically documents the financial constraints faced by women-managed firms and their broader implications for capital misallocation.

Using micro-data from the World Bank Enterprise Surveys (2008–2023) covering 61 countries, our analysis examines formal firms with at least five employees, focusing on both extensive and intensive margins of credit access. Countries are classified as ‘more traditional’ or ‘less traditional’ based on social perceptions about women’s roles from the World Values Survey. Specifically, countries where more adults agree that “[w]hen jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women” are deemed more traditional.

Gender differences in opportunities and constraints breed inequalities, which have significant implications for allocative efficiency (Pan et al. 2025), capital misallocation (Morazzoni and Sy 2022, Ranasinghe 2024), and aggregate productivity (Goldberg and Chiplunker 2021). Following this literature, we construct two empirical indicators of capital misallocation – average return to capital and a measure based on the marginal revenue product of capital – to help assess whether women-led firms operate with sub-optimal levels of capital compared to their male counterparts.

There are no gender gaps in financial access on the extensive margin

Women-managed formal firms do not face credit constraints on the extensive margin, as they are equally likely to apply for credit and are 5 percentage points less likely to have their applications rejected compared to firms mamanged by men (Panel A of Figure 1). This lack of a gender gap in the likelihood of applying for credit holds across different social and cultural norms. However, in traditional countries, women-led firms are 12 percentage points less likely to face credit application rejection.

Prima facie, this is a surprising finding. However, this may be the result of a stronger selection process, where only the most capable women in traditional countries become managers of formal firms. This aligns with the findings of Morazzoni and Sy (2022) for the US, who show that only the most capable women enter entrepreneurship.

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Figure 1 Gender gaps in financial access

Notes: Panel A shows the estimated gender gap in credit application and credit rejection in percentage points, while Panel B shows the gender gap in the amount of debt in percentages. Dark colours reflect results that are statistically significant at the 10% or lower level; light colours, those that are not.

Gender gaps in financial access are significant on the intensive margin, especially in countries with stringent social norms

Women-managed firms are credit-constrained on the intensive margin, receiving 39% lower loan amounts than firms managed by men, conditional on credit applications being approved (Panel B of Figure 1). In traditional countries with stricter social and cultural norms, this gender gap increases to 54%, while in less traditional countries, the gap is 32%. Cultural barriers, including explicit discrimination in credit allocation and implicit biases that demand additional guarantors (e.g. Brock and De Haas 2023) or limit access to information and networks, may explain these results.

These differences are not explained by underlying performance metrics or risk profile

This disparity in the amount of credit received is not explained by gender differences in firms’ risk profiles, profitability, or productivity. In fact, women-managed firms are, on average, more profitable than those managed by men, which may help explain the lower credit-application rejection rates for women-managed firms (Figure 2). Women-managed firms do have lower sales per worker, thereby suggesting higher friction in accessing product and labour markets for better firm-to-worker matches.

Figure 2 Gender gaps in risk appetite and performance

Notes: Estimated gender gaps in leverage and profits-to-revenue ratio, in standard deviations from each country’s mean value. Estimated gender gap in sales per worker in percentages. Dark colours reflect results that are statistically significant at the 10% or lower level; light colours, those that are not.

Gender gaps in credit may breed capital misallocation

Despite women-managed firms being comparably risky and productive and, in fact, more profitable than their counterparts managed by men, they operate with lower credit levels, indicating potential sub-optimal credit allocation. While our data do not allow us to precisely identify the source of sub-optimal credit allocation, they suggest a potential misallocation of capital, particularly when considering the higher profitability of firms managed by females compared to male-managed firms.

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We examine empirical indicators of capital misallocation to test whether accessing lower amounts of credit has an impact on the allocation of resources between firms managed by women and men. Our results show that women-managed firms have a 14.7% higher average return to capital, an empirical measure of capital misallocation (Figure 3). By comparison, Morazzoni and Sy (2022) estimate this difference to be 12% for the US.

Figure 3 Gender gaps in capital misallocation

Notes: The figure shows the estimated gender gap in the average return to capital in percentages. Dark colours reflect results that are statistically significant at the 10% or lower level; light colours, those that are not.

The gender difference in the average return to capital is heightened in more traditional countries, where women-managed firms have a 29.6% higher return to capital compared firms managed by men. Our findings may be interpreted as a sign of capital misallocation; that is, women-managed firms could potentially benefit from increased levels of capital to align their relative returns with those of firms managed by men.

If discrimination on the intensive margin partly explains the extent of capital misallocation, then the difference in the empirical indicator would be stronger for firms that receive credit. In fact, this appears to be particularly true for traditional countries (Figure 3). We show that being able to borrow more could relax the credit constraint of firms and reduce capital misallocation for women-managed firms in more traditional countries.

Discussion

Our results show that women-led firms are not any less profitable or riskier than firms managed by men and yet are discriminated in allocation to credit. Policy options to address these disparities include blended finance solutions that mitigate inequalities in lending to female entrepreneurs (Aydin et al. 2024), gender-inclusive financial products, enhanced market access for women entrepreneurs, and fair lending practices. Legal and regulatory reforms that address the barriers women entrepreneurs face are also crucial. Fostering an inclusive financial environment can unlock the full potential of women-led firms, contributing to more efficient resource allocation.

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Editors’ note: This column is published in collaboration with the International Economic Associations’ Women in Leadership in Economics initiative, which aims to enhance the role of women in economics through research, building partnerships, and amplifying voices.

References

Alesina, A, F Lotti, and P Mistrulli (2013), “Do women pay more for credit? Evidence from Italy”, Journal of the European Economic Association 11: 45–66.

Asiedu, E, I Kalonda-Kanyama, N Leonce, and A Nti-Addae (2013), “Access to credit by firms in sub-Saharan Africa: How relevant is gender?”, American Economic Review 103: 293–97.

Aydin, H I, C Bircan, and R De Haas (2024), “Blended finance and female entrepreneurs”, VoxEU.org, 30 January.

Brock, J M, and R De Haas (2023), “Discriminatory lending: Evidence from bankers in the lab”, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 15: 31–68.

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Goldberg, P, and G Chiplunkar (2021), “Aggregate implications of barriers to female entrepreneurship”, VoxEU.org, 19 April.

Grover, A, and M Viollaz (2025), “The gendered impact of social norms on financial access and capital misallocation”, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 11041.

Morazzoni, M, and A Sy (2022), “Female entrepreneurship, financial frictions and capital misallocation in the US”, Journal of Monetary Economics 129: 93–118.

Pan, J, C Olivetti, and B Petrangolo (2025), “The evolution of gender in the labour market”, VoxEU.org, 20 January.

Ranasinghe, A (2024), “Misallocation across establishment gender”, Journal of Comparative Economics.

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Ubfal, D J (2023), “What works in supporting women-led businesses?”, World Bank Gender Thematic Policy Notes Series: Evidence and Practice Note.

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Finance

How much will Social Security go up next year? See latest forecast

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How much will Social Security go up next year? See latest forecast
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Before Social Security payments are posted this week, many retirees are looking ahead at the potential Cost of Living Adjustment for 2027 with an advocacy group predicting a similar increase to 2026.

On April 10, The Senior Citizens League — a nongovernmental advocacy group for seniors — released its monthly COLA forecast for 2027, saying data showed a 2.8% increase is likely.

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“Over the last seven weeks, crude oil prices have soared, and fuel prices have followed suit. Consumers are getting pinched at the pump as gas prices soar, while businesses are paying more for transportation and/or production costs. This energy price shock is beginning to show up in the monthly U.S. inflation report, and it’s having a tangible impact on 2027 COLA forecasts,” The Motley Fool, a financial and investing advice company, and USA TODAY content partner, reported on April 18.

The official announcement will come in October, as it’s based on third-quarter inflation data.

According to Consumer Price Index data published last week, the annual inflation rate reached a two-year high of 3.3%, up 0.9% over the last month. This is largely due to soaring oil prices caused by the war in Iran.

Social Security payments are always scheduled on Wednesdays, with the final wave of this month scheduled for April 22, according to the Social Security Administration. The schedule is based on the birth dates of the recipients — retired, disabled workers or survivors.

Here’s who will get a Social Security check this week and more on the 2027 COLA forecast:

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When is the final Social Security in April 2026?

Social Security benefits are sent out based on the recipients’ birth dates. Wednesday, April 22, is the final wave of payments for those with birth dates between the 21st and the 31st of April.

What is the 2027 COLA forecast?

The 2027 COLA increase is forecast to be 2.8% due to continuing inflation prices, according to The Senior Citizens League’s April 10 press release. If the SSA approves that rate of increase, average payment for retired workers would go up by $56 per month in January 2027.

The SCL releases a COLA prediction each month based on the Consumer Price Index, Federal Reserve interest rate and the National Unemployment rate from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Beneficiaries who want to stay updated with the monthly predictions may visit the SCL’s “COLA Watch” webpage that includes the forecast, calculations, historical trends and more.

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The official COLA increase for 2027 will be announced in October 2026.

What were the big Social Security changes in 2026?

At the beginning of 2026 recipients received a 2.8% COLA for Social Security and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) payments, according to the SSA’s COLA Fact Sheet and American Association of Retired Persons, increasing payments about $56 per month.

Here are more details on the 2026 COLA increase, per the SSA:

  • The maximum amount of earnings subject to the Social Security tax increased to $184,500.
  • The earnings limit for workers who are younger than full retirement age (67 years old) increased to $24,480. (There will be a $1 deduction for each $2 earned over $24,480.)
  • The earnings limit for people reaching their full retirement age in 2026 increased to $65,160. (There will be a $1 deduction for each $3 earned over $65,160, until the month the worker turns full retirement age.)
  • There is no limit on earnings for workers who are at full retirement age or older for the entire year.

What should I do if I don’t get my Social Security payment?

According to the SSA, if you don’t receive your payment on the scheduled date, wait three days additional days, then call their office.

Where are the Social Security offices in Michigan?

There are 48 offices in Michigan, and to find an office near you, recipients may use the office locator via the Social Security’s website by entering your zip code for office hours, numbers, available services and more.

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How can I replace my Social Security card?

The personal account, “my Social Security” allows recipients to manage their personal records, including a request for a replacement Social Security card and benefit statements for taxes and more. New accounts are created using ID.me or Login.gov as a multifactor authentication.

When will I get my checks in May? Full 2026 schedule

USA TODAY Contributed

Contact Sarah Moore @ smoore@lsj.com

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Hong Kong reasserts role as safe haven in global finance amid Iran conflict

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Hong Kong reasserts role as safe haven in global finance amid Iran conflict
The US-Israeli war on Iran has unleashed sharp swings across global energy and financial markets, fuelling demand for safe-haven assets, with Hong Kong emerging as a potential beneficiary across gold, property and capital markets. In the third of a three-part series, we look at Hong Kong’s position as a stable base where demand for property has held firm despite the global turmoil.

The seven-week military conflict in the Middle East will redefine Hong Kong’s role as a global financial centre, positioning the city as a safe harbour for capital and investments.

Anecdotal evidence suggested that more banks had turned to Hong Kong to protect their businesses and committed themselves to expanding their presence in the city. At the same time, inquiries about adding allocations of mainland Chinese assets among global investors had recently increased, potentially enlarging the customer base for the city’s asset-management industry and family offices and driving demand for offshore yuan-linked financial products.

For years, Hong Kong’s status as a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region has been challenged by Dubai, which has risen to prominence as a gateway linking Asia and Europe in capital flows, transport and logistics. With the war destabilising the Middle East – at one point forcing the closure of the Dubai International Airport and sending stocks in the Gulf region plunging – Hong Kong has re-emerged due to its geographical location, a pegged exchange rate, free capital flows and support from China’s economic strength.

“In that context, China and Hong Kong are attracting renewed attention,” said Gary Dugan, CEO of The Global CIO Office in Dubai, which advises family offices and ultra-high-net-worth individuals globally. “There is growing interest among some clients in increasing exposure to China and Hong Kong. It is less a simple flight to safety and more a reassessment of where investors see relative value, policy consistency and long-term strategic opportunity.”

Dubai now relies on trade, tourism and finance as the pillars of its economy, reflecting the success of its four-decade diversification away from oil for sustained growth. The United Arab Emirates city is home to Jebel Ali Free Zone, the biggest free-trade zone in the Middle East, and the second-largest stock market in the region, with combined market values of US$1.01 trillion. The city, also a global hub for gold trading, has a population of 4 million, about 80 per cent of which are foreign expatriates. Dubai’s economy grew by 4.7 per cent in the January-to-September period last year.

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Budget crisis is top concern for MPS leader Cassellius | Opinion

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Budget crisis is top concern for MPS leader Cassellius | Opinion


Before seeking a new referendum MPS needs to rebuild trust in the community through completing state audits, putting in place controls to prevent overspending and routine reports to the public.

For MPS Superintendent Brenda Cassellius, who just wrapped up her first year leading Milwaukee’s public school system, her tenure has been punctuated by some very big numbers.

The first is $252 million. That is the amount of new spending voters narrowly approved in an April 2024 referendum to support operations in Wisconsin’s largest school district. Just months later, MPS was rocked by revelations the district was months behind in filing key financial reports to the state, which led to former Superintendent Keith Posley’s resignation.

The second is $1 billion. MPS faces a deferred maintenance backlog exceeding $1 billion. The district’s enrollment has declined 30% over the last 30 years, leaving many schools at less than 50% full. That, in part, is driving a plan to close some schools and to improve others to help lower costs.

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The final is $46 million, the deficit MPS was running for the 2024-25 school year, an unexpected shortfall which has led to hundreds of staff layoffs.

Getting the district’s accounting, budgeting and financial reporting back on track has dominated Cassellius’s first year at MPS. In an April 15 interview with the Journal Sentinel’s editorial board, she talked in detail about the challenges putting that into order and progress she sees in restoring transparency into its operations.

State funding and aging buildings create budget nightmares

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Cassellius says state needs to keep up its share of school funding

In an interview with the Journal Sentinel editorial board, MPS leader Brenda Cassellius says budgets and buildings are her two top worries.

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Cassellius said the on-going budget crisis is her top concern. She said the state’s failure to live up to its share of funding is exacerbating MPS’ budget woes. A group of school districts, teachers and parents filed suit against the state Legislature and its Joint Finance Committee claiming the current state funding system is unconstitutional and prevents schools from meeting students’ educational needs.

Funding for special education is especially critical. About 20% of MPS students have disabilities, almost twice the share of the city’s charter schools, and the average of 14% across Wisconsin.

“What’s keeping me up now, you know, is really just the budget crisis we’re in, with not only this year but multiple years going out without additional state aid, we’ve been not getting funding for what our needs are for our students, and particularly our students with special needs,” she said.

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Although the state budget increased special education funding to a 42% reimbursement rate, the actual rate has been about 35%. Another component to the budget headache is the age of MPS buildings. The average age is 85 years-old compared to 45 across the nation.

“We have just kicked this can down the curb or kicked it down the street or whatever you call it for too long. And it’s time that we really take on a serious conversation about the conditions of the learning environments in which we send our children,” she said. “Particularly in Milwaukee Public Schools, we serve the most vulnerable children. Children who have language barriers, children who have disabilities, children in high-concentrated poverty.”

What needs to happen before MPS seeks another referendum

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Voters need to be comfortable MPS has made tough budget decisions

In an interview with Journal Sentinel editorial board, Brenda Cassellius said voters will need to see budget improvements before seeking more spending

Cassellius said MPS will definitely need to go back to voters for a new referendum in the future. In addition to the 2024 measure, voters approved an $87 million plan in 2020.

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Before doing that, she said the district first needs to rebuild trust in the community through completing required state audits, putting into place controls to prevent overspending and routine reports to the school board and public about finances.

“I don’t think that the voters are going to want us to bring something forward until they feel comfortable that we have done the cleanup that is necessary,” she said. “And we’ve built the trust that we have the sufficient controls in place.”

In the interim, she’s hoping the state will meet its constitutional responsibility to adequately fund public schools.

“What the public expects is you know where the money is, you’re spending it as close as you can to children, you’re getting good on the promise around art, music, and PE, and the things the public said they wanted to fund,” Cassellius said. “And they want their kids to have so that they have a quality education and an excellent education in Milwaukee Public Schools, and that they had the right amount of staff that they actually need. In the school to be safe and to run a good operation.”

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Rebuilding finance staff in wake of $46 million in overspending

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MPS is rebuilding school finance staff in wake of reporting lapses

In an interview with the Journal Sentinel editorial board April 15, MPS superintendent discusses accountability for district’s financial problems.

The $46 million budget shortfall from the 2024-25 school year started coming into view last fall and was confirmed in mid-January. Cassellius noted that in addition to hiring a new superintendent, MPS also parted ways with its comptroller and CFO.

“We are really rebuilding the personnel and staff of the finance department. That is what’s critical, is having the right people in the right seats doing the work,” she said. “Also critical is making sure that you have the right controls in place. The audit findings found that we did not have proper controls in place and now we have those proper controls in place and when we find things we put new SOPs in place and that is what any business does.”

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Identifying that shortfall, though painful, was the result of better accounting.

“Being three years behind in auditing means that you don’t have full sight on your actual revenues and expenditures. And so we have now full sight of our revenues and our expenditures and that’s why we were able to see this new deficit of $46 million,” she said. “And we still continue to work with DPI on those processes to make sure that every month we’re doing monthly to actuals and doing those accounting, reporting that to the board. In a way that is consumable to the public that they can understand.”

Jim Fitzhenry is the Ideas Lab Editor/Director of Community Engagement for the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Reach him at jfitzhen@gannett.com or 920-993-7154.

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