Lifestyle
What happens when a leather mama and a latex daddy fall in love?
Zana Bayne and Mariano Cortez are two of the most low-key yet cultishly-loved designers in L.A. dealing in leather and latex, respectively. They also happen to be a couple. Zana wears Zana Bayne corset, Black Suede Studio boots, Calzedonia tights, Pinsy bodysuit. Mariano wears BustedBrand shirt and pants, Ugo Cacciatori bracelet, Other People’s Property rings.
In a lofty space streaming with hot light on Los Angeles Street, there is a dressing room with heavy red curtains and a door in the shape of a butt plug. A mirror inside captures your reflection in its familiar curvature, and, of course, you pull out your phone to take a picture — because when have you ever seen a butt plug-shaped dressing room before? Across the room, a Wassily-style chair sunbathes in the corner, with a handmade burgundy leather base and back, studs running along the seams. The chair has straps on its armchairs — made for wrists to slip into — with custom silver buckles in the shape of an outstretched woman’s physique. Vintage fetish magazines line the glass table in the center of the room, which smells of fresh paint, leather and latex. On a warm afternoon in August, this space is still under construction, but soon it will be a store: the shared world of Zana Bayne and Mariano Cortez, a physical manifestation of their creative partnership and personal relationship.
Bayne and Cortez are two of the most low-key yet cultishly-loved designers in L.A. dealing in leather and latex, respectively. What people come to Bayne for is her specific style, where all details are meticulously done by hand, and where hardware reigns supreme. (She made the aforementioned chair.) A Zana Bayne piece feels structural to the point of sculptural — a leather crystal-studded corset flaring with hip ruffles that unfold like an accordion; a lace-up corset eyelet skirt that creates a soft, voluptuous curve line away from the body. The pieces are instantly recognizable as hers: hand-laced rivets holding together a bustier in the shape of a broken heart, the way one of her spiked choker handbags seems to defy gravity. Cortez is the Latex King of Los Angeles, known for developing new techniques with the material, or imagining it in completely new contexts. In Cortez’s hands, latex becomes printed as leopard and cowhide, it becomes evening wear, sportswear or business casual — from a football tank to a floor-length dress to a blazer.
And they happen to be in a relationship. Sitting in the room with Cortez and Bayne, there is a gravitational pull that can be felt when in the presence of opposites who speak the same language. Leather and latex being their shared dialect. Fashion is a small world, fashion inspired by fetish wear is even smaller. There is a mutual understanding between the two designers, both about the practical things — like impossible schedules or the kind of obsessive nature you must have to be successful — and the big things, like living a life in dedication to your practice, or what it means to blend the realms of subculture, art and fashion. “What we do is so blood, sweat and tears — every iota of your being at times — and if you aren’t in it, it’s really hard to understand for certain people,” Bayne says.
In February, Bayne posted an image of a photo strip of her and Cortez and captioned it: “Leather mama & latex daddy.” The store, called FETISH and launching in October, is somehow the culmination of this exact description. Which takes us back to the beginning: What happens when a leather mama and a latex daddy fall in love?
Walking into Cortez’s studio in the fashion district, you are first hit by the distinct smell of rubber, filling your nostrils, washing over your brain in a haze of strangely intimate comfort. Cortez and Bayne are wearing all black in 90-degree heat while sipping on green juices. She is in a Nine Inch Nails 2008 tour T-shirt, thrown over a slip dress with fishnets on, and Cortez is in a T-shirt, cargo shorts and boots. They tell me that earlier that day, Chappell Roan wore a custom Bustedbrand X Zana Bayne look on stage at Lollapalooza for what was said to be the festival’s biggest audience ever. Roan jumped around in a hot pink and electric blue lucha libre wrestler’s outfit made of latex, with iridescent leather accessories including a belt, mask, shin guards and wrist and upper arm cuffs. Bayne started with accessories early in her career — first creating a single harness — back when she was an obsessive fashion documentarian with the blog Garbage Dress, and was enamored by the transformative qualities a small piece could have on an outfit, an aura. “There’s something about a strap of leather and a buckle that can really make people go wild,” she says. “I’m still not sick of exploring that.”
Cortez and Bayne started their brands at different times, both literally and culturally speaking. In 2011, when Zana Bayne was formed, there were fewer people making harnesses intended to wear at a concert or party, or in broad daylight. Bayne was one of the designers to open that world up for designers like Cortez, who would officially start his brand in 2018. Back then, anything that was made of leather with some rivets would be pigeonholed as strictly fetish wear, Bayne remembers, and there was little focus on the actual quality or design of the garment, which is what her brand was driven by. The term “post-fetish” was something her brand created to describe the kind of clothing she was making (mostly as a diversion for press, which in the 2010s loved to throw “BDSM” in a headline when covering the brand). Her work was rooted in and inspired by bondage, but she decidedly did not position itself as a bondage brand. “That term didn’t exist,” Bayne says. “The term post-fetish was, like, apres ski, like, postmodernism. It was a word play thing, and it worked. Now, there’s hundreds of brands. There isn’t a void to be filled anymore, because it’s its own monster.”
Cortez likes to think of his work as a bridge between fetish and ready-to-wear. “It still comes from a fashion standpoint — my interest was in latex material and what it could be,” says Cortez. “Respecting the roots of what people created this for, and then turning it into a more practical [garment].” One of the many iterations of designer Vivienne Westwood’s iconic boutique, Worlds End which she opened with then-partner Malcom McLaren in the ’70s, was famously dubbed “SEX,” with a huge sign in pink squeaky letters at the top. The store sold fetish wear and had whips and chains on display. Their slogan was: “rubberwear for the office.”
For both Cortez’s and Bayne’s designs, something special happens when they are seen, when they are out in the world. This is when they come to life, when the natural tension of wearing fetish-inspired wear — like one of Bayne’s spiked triangle bras, or Cortez’s latex cat suits — in a new context rises to the surface and you can see it in action. For the wearer, there is also an obvious dedication necessary to wear the pieces — both leather and latex, specifically latex, require a particular care process, and getting a piece by Bayne or Cortez on is an entire process on its own. There’s an intensity to the materials that, no matter the context, remains. There is a satisfaction to seeing Beyoncé wearing a full latex outfit on the cover of “Cowboy Carter,” which Cortez designed, or Ariana Grande wearing a full custom lavender leather look in the video for “Rain on Me,” which Bayne made. While on some level it feels as if they are positioning themselves towards the subversive through the code of fabric, it is also a straightforward appreciation of the designs themselves.
Bayne is mostly self-taught. She grew up in San Francisco, where she attended the San Francisco Art Institute and got a degree in conceptual art. “The first corsets I made came out of nightlife and subculture,” she says. “In San Francisco at that time, everyone was doing everything all at once. You go from a leather bar to a drag show to a punk show to a noise show. We’d go to soul night and then some rave off the train tracks. It was just this mix of subcultures and fashion.” Then she moved to New York, which is when her brand got its legs. Slowly and organically, stylists were pulling pieces for their clients, custom celebrity requests started coming in and eventually she became a highlight at New York Fashion Week. “All of a sudden I was making things out of my bedroom for Lady Gaga,” Bayne says.
Cortez is from Temecula, where he grew up in punk scenes, going to the desert, skating and doing BMX — which people still recognize him from, Bayne adds. He got injured at one point from BMX, and wasn’t able to walk for a year, which is when he put all his energy into learning about fashion on Tumblr. He moved to L.A. as a teenager, where he got an internship-turned-job at L.A. Roxx, a custom design house specializing in leather. They’d get calls from people constantly, inquiring if they worked with latex, which piqued Cortez’s interest. “It was curiosity,” he says. “People not knowing, also me not knowing, just made me dive deeper.” He’d go on to learn the craft under an L.A. fetish latex designer before starting Bustedbrand on his own terms.
Cortez knew of Bayne’s brand long before he started his own, and says that a lot of her designs were a big inspiration when he started out, and still are. Bayne quips in response: “I thought that some things looked slightly familiar. However, I always maintained the opinion that Busted had the coolest latex designs, the most relevant designs, and that their branding was better than anyone else’s who was in the game. I was both somewhat annoyed and appreciative. I couldn’t help but be like, ‘Yeah, you’re doing a great job.’”
Bayne is a Virgo, Cortez is a Pisces — sister signs that, in theory, are on opposite sides of the spectrum, but, in practice, serve as each other’s balance. It checks: Cortez is quiet and stoic, with a subtle warmth that reveals itself as he gets comfortable, while Bayne’s dark humor, sharp intellect and charisma serve as a magnet. Cortez regularly giggles at her dry jokes. It’s clear they share a shorthand, inside things that they don’t care to explain. They seem to complement each other in ways beyond just a shared aesthetic. “I think we’re both very stubborn people,” Bayne says. “An interesting thing to learn was how we’re saying the same thing, but in totally different ways.”
Zana wears Zana Bayne dress, Bustedbrand bra and underwear, Givenchy shoes, The Great Frog and Other People’s Property rings. Mariano wears BustedBrand T-shirt and jeans, Other People’s Property bracelet and rings.
Their work kept being featured in the same editorials, on the same artists for years — Beyoncé, being one. People would come into Bayne’s studio carrying a Bustedbrand bag. And she’d think: “There it is again.” They’d physically been in the same room many times as well, and were cordial to each other, but hadn’t communicated beyond a head nod. “I’m mean,” Bayne jokes.
“She made a personal [Instagram] account and I had followed [it],” Cortez remembers. “Then I saw she started hanging out with my friend, Britton [Litow], and I asked, ‘What’s up with Zana?’ I told her I was interested.” Litow texted Cortez a couple days later and said that Bayne was interested. “I was like, ‘He can ask me out,’” Bayne says. No moves were made until Litow’s birthday dinner a couple months later at Mr. Chow, when she sat Cortez and Bayne next to each other. “He was wearing sunglasses,” Bayne remembers. “At night.” Their first date was at a bar where Bayne wore a “really intense outfit,” which was one of her own pieces.
Being in a relationship with another designer has been a comfort for Cortez. He’d never been able to share the highs and lows of the business with anyone else like this. “Zana definitely helps me be a little less one-track mind and enjoy what just happened,” he says. “That’s been pretty leveling, grounding. It’s been really nice that we share these experiences.”
“It’s really cliche for people to say, ‘I want to be with someone who challenges me.’ And I’ve never felt that way before. That’s never something I’ve looked for, but I think we definitely challenge each other,” Bayne says. “You remind me of what I love about what we do and where it can possibly go.”
Bayne says Cortez is constantly curious, with a brain full of “a million question marks at all times.” “I think curiosity has brought me to a lot of really interesting new techniques,” he responds. There is a spaceship-looking machine behind him that takes up an entire corner of the massive studio space, a laser cutter that he uses for his latex work. This is part of a production system Cortez developed for himself, which has further allowed him to think of latex in new ways, including using traditional garment techniques like sewing — something you usually don’t do with latex — which makes it possible to create some of his silhouettes, like a voluminous bomber jacket or a boxer short.
Zana wears Rick Owens gown, JW PEI shoes, Other People’s Property rings, The Great Frog rings, Alighieri earrings.
Mariano wears Entire Studios suit and tank top, Akila sunglasses, Other People’s Property bracelet and rings.
(Natalia Mantini / For The Times)
It’s a moment of expansion for Bayne as well, who is in the process of releasing a run of non-leather items for the first time inspired by the visual language she’s built over the last 13 years.
Charli XCX starts bumping on the speaker that is connected to Cortez’s phone — “maybe we go like one notch down?” Bayne asks, laughing. Charli wore one of Bayne’s skirts for a recent spread in British GQ. A non-exhaustive list of Bayne’s clients — mostly custom — include Rei Kawakubo, Kim Petras, Eartheater, Kim Kardashian, Brooke Candy, Doja Cat, Debbie Harry and she’s in the process of making some pieces for L.A. billboard icon Angelyne. For Cortez, that list includes 2 Chainz, Rico Nasty, Hailey Bieber, Ye, among others. They’ve collaborated on custom looks for artists, including Roan. And earlier this year, they collaborated on an exclusive collection, featuring micro triangle bras and belts in classic Bayne construction with a Bustedbrand flair through the leopard print and star appliques. “We have brands that work seamlessly together,” Bayne says. “It’s a no brainer.”
The ultimate collaboration will be the new store opening. Cortez’s father built the butt plug cut-out for the fitting room. “I told him it was a spike,” Cortez says, laughing. “The next day after I sent him the photo and the dimensions he was like, ‘That’s a butt plug.’”
Cortez and Bayne want the space to feel “clean and sexy.” “We’re building our universe,” Bayne says, which means the store will feature their pieces and exclusive collaborations, but it will also be a home to their musical inspirations, beloved objects and design references. They want the experience to be one of discovery. “There’s beauty, there’s severity with what we do, but there’s going to be playful elements,” Bayne says. The store is also an opportunity to continue presenting leather and latex in the contexts in which Cortez and Bayne imagine them in. Spending time in the space itself feels like sitting in on a conversation between Bayne and Cortez, which is a rarity, given the intentional mysteriousness around them as a couple.
“It’s really special what we get to do, and what we do [is] really f—ing hard,” Bayne says. “It takes a chunk of your soul constantly, but there’s got to be a part of us that loves what we do.”
“I told myself that the other day,” Cortez says. “I love what I do. And I’m glad I get to share it with Zana.”
Makeup Selena Ruiz
Hair Adrian Arredondo
Lighting Nick Shamblott
Lifestyle
How young people feel about American identity, on the nation’s 250th birthday
As the nation marks the 250th anniversary of its founding, NPR asked students all around the country to reflect on the moment and to make podcasts about the American experience and what “life liberty and the pursuit of happiness” means to them.


We received more than 700 entries, including many conversations with immigrant parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles about why their family decided to move to the United States. Others scored high-profile interviews with veterans, government officials and even Gloria Steinem.
We listened to reenactments and retellings of histories like the Battle of Monmouth, the Stonewall riots, the Underground Railroad and a special presentation on President Theodore Roosevelt’s pets. Other podcasts take place in the present, including one in which students report on civics education in their school.
Our team chose a handful of winning entries and honorable mentions from fourth graders, middle and high schoolers. Here they are, in alphabetical order:
Winners
Abridged
Students: Grace Kepka and Angelika Garrett, Montgomery Blair High School in Silver Spring, Md.
Teacher/Sponsor: Kyle Wannen
High schooler Grace lives in Takoma Park, Md., one of the handful of cities in the United States that allow 16 year olds to vote in all local elections. In her podcast with her friend Angelika, they discuss the power of the youth vote, and how voting rights encourage residents to learn about their government and be more politically active in their communities.
Civics in Our Schools
Students: Izabella Anthony, Benjamin Baigel, Bridget Castellon, Rile DeLeon, Maxwell Gibbs, Daniel Hernandez, Malcolm Johnson, Sylpa Kafle, Mason King, Kyle Li, Maximus Lin, Emmerson Quinn, Ariella Schoenfeld, Owenize Udevbulu and Dara Widzowski, Hewlett Elementary School in Hewlett, N.Y.
Teacher/Sponsor: Jaime Harrington
“Here’s the surprising truth. Many Americans, even grownups, don’t know the basics of how our country was founded or how our government works.” In Civics in Our Schools, a group of fifth graders voice their concerns about the lack of good civics education and discuss what they can do to be better citizens.
Leaving Greece
Student: Livie Courser, Wickliffe Progressive Elementary School in Upper Arlington, Ohio
Teacher/Sponsor: Shelly Hughes
Livie interviews her grandfather about his move from Greece to the United States. “How did it feel to immigrate to the U.S.?” she asks. “Very hard. Very very hard,” he responds. He shares with his granddaughter why he took the risk, and how his move to the U.S. allowed him to work hard at a factory, dream big and eventually open up his own restaurants.
Researching the Underground Railroad
Students: Travis Bozeman and Oliver Heering, South Douglas Elementary School in Douglasville, Ga.
Teacher/Sponsor: Thomas Bruno
“Did you know around 100,000 slaves escaped using the Underground Railroad?” In a deep dive into a slice of history they learned from school, fourth graders Travis and Oliver report on the Underground Railroad. They present their research in the podcast, and weave in the expert interview they scored.
The American Dream
Student: Makayla Cheung, Mercer Island High School in Mercer Island, Wash.
Teacher/Sponsor: Lauren Schechter
In her podcast about her father, Makayla explores how different everyone’s American Dream is. Case in point, her dad moved from Hong Kong to the United States because of his talent in running. He tells Makayla he had a hard time adjusting at first and understanding his coach. But cross country, he says, didn’t require too much communication, and the sport gave him confidence and a way for him to find community and connect with other people.
The Journal
Student: Violet Maxinoski, Carmel High School in Carmel, Calif.
Teacher/Sponsor: Shelley Grahl
In an interview with her daughter Violet, Sandi Maxinoski revisits stories from her journal from the years she served in Iraq. She describes being in “cities fractured by bombings, checkpoints, smoke and uncertainty,” then returning to the United States where she felt an “intense amount of security” being able to walk down the street without the fear of something blowing up. Through these conversations, Violet discusses how the “life, liberty and happiness” she’s gotten used to shouldn’t be taken for granted.
Welcome Home, Grandpa
Student: Ursula Koestner, Roslyn High School in Roslyn Heights, N.Y.
Teacher/Sponsor: Matthew Vogt
“The Vietnam War destroyed more than it saved, even decades after its end,” high schooler Ursula says in her podcast. “My grandfather remains one of its victims despite returning home alive.” In her moving podcast, Ursula shares her family’s story and explores the generational trauma and lasting impact the Vietnam War has on veterans.
Honorable Mentions
America the Beautiful
Students: Pareena Gupta and Vidushee Bala, Amador Valley High School in Pleasanton, Calif.
Teacher/Sponsor: Stacey Sklar
America: The Ups and the Downs
Student: Alana Burwell, The Waldorf School of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pa.
Teacher/Sponsor: Anyta Thomas
America’s New Favorite Sport-Girls’ Flag Football
Students: Josephine Barry-Kao and Malcolm Barry-Kao, Lowell High School in San Francisco, Calif.
Teacher/Sponsor: Jacqueline Moses
An Intro to Differing Perspectives
Student: Waylon Heikinen, Ingomar Middle School in Franklin Park, Pa.
Teacher/Sponsor: Heath Gamache
Becoming American
Students: Karolina Zientek, James Gearhart, Andrea Vezmar, Troy Murray and August Hutchison, Greenwich High School in Greenwich, Conn.
Teacher/Sponsor: Lukasz Zientek
Before You Drop A Track: America’s 250th Anniversary
Student: Lukas Boulom, Public Academy For Performing Arts in Albuquerque, N.M.
Teacher/Sponsor: Su Hudson
Dawg Talk | Are we equal now?
Students: Makenna Aniszewski, Trinlee Leitner, Nagamoshitha Manivannan, Nethra Prabhu, Vaishnavi Tiwari and Sophia Van Dorn, Otwell Middle School in Cumming, Ga.
Teacher/Sponsor: David Miller
Democracy for Everyone or No One
Student: Jeju Daisy Ahn-Miles, Punahou School in Honolulu, Hawaii
Teacher/Sponsor: Christine Ahn
Everything Given Forward
Student: Lara Leon, Mountain View High School in Mountain View, Calif.
Teacher/Sponsor: Tom Chang
Fifty Stars, One Banner
Student: Naina Dhillon, Khan Lab School in Palo Alto, Calif.
Teacher/Sponsor: Emily Lindsey
Freedom’s Shore
Student: Dipa Chéry, The Kinkaid School in Houston, Texas
Teacher/Sponsor: Olen Rambow
From One Immigrant To Another
Student: Afomia Lemma, St. Mary’s Lynn in Lynn, Mass.
Teacher/Sponsor: Tiringo Endalamaw
Hope and Resistance
Student: Zinnia Bender, North Fork High School in Hotchkiss, Colo.
Teacher/Sponsor: Clara Pena
How Is My Life Like In US
Student: Yicheng Sun, Rectory School in Pomfret, Conn.
Teacher/Sponsor: Andrew Barker
Life of a Soldier
Students: Della Axelband, Peyton Johnson, Lily Epstein and Lilly Murillo, Jupiter Middle School in Jupiter, Fla.
Teacher/Sponsor: Sireesha Rutter
More Than A Photograph
Student: Josie Sloan-Westmoreland, The Learning Community School in Swannanoa, N.C.
Teacher/Sponsor: David Bird
Moving From Country to Country
Students: Ida Buerckert, Daniella Cubas, Ayano Enishi and Anastaiia Koshyk, Irving A. Robbins Middle School in Farmington, Conn.
Teacher/Sponsor: Alysson Olsen
Picketts Charge
Student: Zoe Snyder, Susquenita High School in Duncannon, Pa.
Teacher/Sponsor: Terrance Shepler
“So What??”
Student: Caroline Harris, Marin Academy in San Rafael, Calif.
Teacher/Sponsor: Kelly Kurtzig
Somewhere Over the Rainbow
Student: Lark (Miles) Jackman, Public Academy For Performing Arts in Albuquerque, N.M.
Teacher/Sponsor: Su Hudson
Teddy Roosevelt and His Pets
Student: Abbott Mearns and Keaton Rainwater, College Place Middle School in Lynnwood, Wash.
Teacher/Sponsor: Colindra Connolly
The Battle of Monmouth: A Twist on History
Students: Leonardo, Zinna and Kaiden, Marlboro Middle School in Marlboro, N.J.
Teacher/Sponsor: Tara Meara
The Freedom to Fail
Students: Abraham Coher and William Pan, Polytechnic School in Pasadena, Calif.
Teacher/Sponsor: Aliya Coher
The Government Exodus: Why Federal Workers Resign
Student: Anna Su, Montgomery Blair High School in Silver Spring, Md.
Teacher/Sponsor: Kyle Wannen
The Name I Chose Polly Bemis (September 11, 1853 – November 6, 1933)
Student: Jubilee Sung, Imaginate Ink in Irvine, Calif.
Teacher/Sponsor: Clarissa Ngo
The Pig and Potato Podcast
Student: Petra Rouhana, Maryvale Preparatory School in Lutherville, Md.
Teacher/Sponsor: Deirdre McAllister
The Small Pond of Peace
Students: Noam Dekel, Ronnie Dekel, Ian Rodriguez, Leonardo Leon-Espinoza, Singary Fofana, Ashly Arboleda-Osorio, Olumide Martin and Salma Elshaarawi, P.S. 333 Manhattan School for Children in New York, N.Y.
Teacher/Sponsor: Karin Patterson
to be united as citizens
Student: Josh Langlois, Cloverleaf Home Education in Highlands Ranch, Colo.
Teacher/Sponsor: Tony Winger
Two Worlds, One Dream
Student: Allayar Maratov, Rectory School in Pomfret, Conn.
Teacher/Sponsor: Andrew Barker
What is Home?
Student: Siobhan Allen, The Hewitt School in New York, N.Y.
Teacher/Sponsor: Jonathan Sabol
Lifestyle
Sunday Puzzle: Five plus two, two plus five
Sunday Puzzle
NPR
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NPR
On-air challenge
I’m going to give you two five-letter words. Add the same two letters at the end of the first one and the start of the second one, in each case to complete a familiar seven-letter word.
Ex. Later Ready –> LATERAL/ALREADY
1. Habit Tempt
2. Laten Press
3. Blank Ching
4. Since Venue
5. Shack Groom
6. Surge Stage
Last week’s challenge
Last week’s challenge came from Rawson Sheinberg. of Plymouth, Mich. Think of a U.S. city with a two-word name. Add a letter to the first word, without rearranging letters, to name a country. Then, without adding a letter, rearrange the letters of the second word to name another country. What places are these?
Answer: Los Angeles –> Laos, Senegal
Winner
Elaine Neel of Derby, Kansas.
This week’s challenge
Next weekend will be the 186th convention of the National Puzzler League, in Bloomington, Ind., which I’ll be attending as always. Two other people who will be there are Henri Picciotto and Joshua Kosman, who created this week’s challenge. Name two words that are opposites. They share a single letter. Remove that shared letter from each word, put a hyphen between the two starting words, and you’ll get a term you sometimes see in food ads. What are the two words?
If you know the answer to the challenge, submit it here by Thursday, July 9 at 3 p.m. ET. Listeners whose answers are selected win a chance to play the on-air puzzle. Important: include a phone number where we can reach you.
Lifestyle
But first, coffee: The drink that energized the American Revolution
An illustration of the Boston Tea Party, when colonists dumped British East India Company tea into the harbor on Dec. 16, 1773. Some accounts say this marked a pivotal moment when Americans started loving coffee. But one historian says Americans were drinking lots of coffee before then.
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A consequential act of defiance secured tea’s place as perhaps the most iconic beverage of America’s colonial era.
The Boston Tea Party became an essential ingredient in the recipe for revolution in the following years.
But tea wasn’t the only hot beverage with a prominent role in America’s fight for independence.
Coffee was an important part of American culture from the start. And coffeehouses were essential, too — serving as hubs for brewing ideas of independence.
As the United States celebrates 250 years, here’s what to know about America’s early history of coffee.

Colonists were drinking coffee long before the United States existed
Europeans brought coffee with them when they came to America.
“The first documented example of a mortar and pestle used to grind coffee beans was on the Mayflower” in 1620, says historian Michelle Craig McDonald, the author of Coffee Nation: How One Commodity Transformed the Early United States.
“The fact that coffee was present so early is not surprising if you think about it,” McDonald says. “A number of those who were on the Mayflower came to North America from Amsterdam, which was a major coffee trading center in Western Europe by the 17th century.”
The first coffeehouse in the colonies opened in 1676 in Boston, a century before the U.S. declared independence, she says. Some taverns sold coffee even earlier.
The Boston Tea Party probably wasn’t the dramatic turning point toward coffee that some claim
On the night of Dec. 16, 1773, disgruntled colonists boarded three ships moored in Boston Harbor and threw overboard more than 92,000 pounds of tea owned by the British East India Company.
Tensions had been building between the Crown and the colonies over the previous decade, as Britain tried to levy taxes on its colonies to recoup war debts.
The Boston Tea Party protest was targeted at the British government’s passing of the Tea Act in 1773, which granted the East India Company a monopoly over tea sales in the colonies. While the British had removed some unpopular taxes in the preceding years, they left tea taxes in place. Colonial merchants were especially upset that the act allowed the East India Company to undercut their tea business.

To build solidarity for their cause of sovereignty, some patriots called on colonialists to swear off tea in favor of coffee. It’s why many histories point to the Boston Tea Party as a turning point when Americans switched from mostly drinking tea to mostly coffee. The anti-tea sentiment was immortalized in a founding father’s now-famous letter.
In July 1774, John Adams (before he became the second U.S. president) wrote to his wife Abigail, recounting an incident during his travels. After a long day, he asked the proprietor of the house where he was lodging for a cup of tea, provided it was smuggled and free of British taxes.
” ‘No sir, said she, we have renounced all Tea in this Place. I cant make Tea, but I’le make you Coffee.’ Accordingly I have drank Coffee every Afternoon since, and have borne it very well. Tea must be universally renounced. I must be weaned, and the sooner, the better,” Adams wrote.
Despite John Adams claiming a newfound patriotic duty to appreciate coffee, McDonald says colonists had been drinking lots of coffee all along.
She studied advertisements from the 1760s and ’70s to estimate how many shops sold coffee versus tea. Even before the Boston Tea Party, she says, “coffee is definitely more broadly available than tea is.”
A big reason? It was cheaper. “Its price again per pound is significantly less, which tells you about its availability, its accessibility to drinkers.”
Historians say it’s hard to definitively compare tea with coffee consumption, though, as official records from before America gained independence were inconsistent.
And smuggling was rampant, making official records even less reliable.

“There is a vast amount of smuggling,” says Joyce Chaplin, a professor of early American history at Harvard University. “So they’re not paying formal duties on tea that they get from the Dutch. They’re probably not paying formal duties on coffee from the French Caribbean.”
And Chaplin notes that people who loudly proclaimed a new appreciation for coffee over tea weren’t always doing what they said. It could have been political pandering. “I do not drink tea that comes via the East India Company,” she posits someone of the era saying. “But, you know, other sources are fine. Ditto for the coffee.”
Coffeehouses were a hub for revolutionary ideas
A coffeepot with cover, circa 1795. It has an American eagle motif, made in China for the American market. Coffee was part of a growing trend of globalization in the colonial era.
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In the colonial era, coffeehouses were hotbeds for seditious thought — where people planned acts of revolution.
“Coffeehouses are kind of famous for being places where people think and plot things,” says Mark Pendergrast, author of Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World.
A coffeehouse called the Green Dragon served as one of the locations for planning the Boston Tea Party. Years earlier, the Old London Coffeehouse in Philadelphia was a meeting place for strategizing responses to another British tax, the Stamp Act of 1765.
In Britain, coffeehouses were nicknamed “penny universities,” Pendergrast says: “because for a penny you could go and learn a whole lot by sitting around in a coffeehouse and discussing everything.” The same attitude traveled across the Atlantic.
Early American coffeehouses would commonly have city business directories, libraries of newspapers and currency exchange information. People could get maritime insurance there or buy things at auction.

“There’s a reason why coffeehouses become places of colonial protest … in the 1760s, in the 1770s, and it’s because it is the place where traders and merchants tended to gather,” historian McDonald says. “That’s where they heard about the economics of the day.”
Taverns were more likely than coffeehouses to have rooms for rent and stables for travelers’ horses. They were also more likely to have food.
Interestingly enough, coffeehouses could serve alcohol and taverns could serve coffee.
But the vibes at each were different. While women and men could “riotously drink together” in taverns, coffeehouses often didn’t allow women, according to Chaplin of Harvard.
“The sense was the coffeehouse was the place where you had a clear head — to argue about politics, to find out what was going on in the business world, to cut a business deal,” she says. “Whereas taverns were places where, in a sense, you refueled.”
Still, she says, the lines between the two “weren’t completely clear.”
The cost of America’s revolutionary drink
Coffee (and tea for that matter) was part of a growing globalization of trade around this time.
Much of the coffee in the colonies was grown in the Caribbean, while tea came from China.

Supply was up and coffee was easier than ever to drink. “Trade and frankly, imperialism, are making it possible for … colonial products to be produced and transferred to other parts of the world in greater and greater quantities,” says Chaplin.
As a result, by the time of the American Revolution, both coffee and tea were in reach for many common people. “They’re both becoming affordable luxuries,” Chaplin says.
Fancy coffee and tea paraphernalia were also part of this increasingly global market. Middle and upper-class people would have wanted special implements for drinking these beverages and a place to drink it. That meant they needed wood for coffee tables, silver for coffeepots, and porcelain for teapots.
“These two beverages are encouraging people to consume all kinds of new stuff,” says Chaplin. “The mahogany that comes out of the Caribbean, the china coming out of China, silver that is mined principally in South and Central America and processed in a lot of the parts of the world.”
There’s a dark side to coffee’s history, too. The plantations that supplied the crop ran on the labor of enslaved people. By 1790, half of the world’s coffee was being grown in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, in what is today Haiti, Pendergrast says, where slaves were routinely mistreated, raped and murdered.

The Declaration of Independence, signed in 1776, is infamous for a contradiction. It proclaimed that “all men are created equal,” but failed to acknowledge the hundreds of thousands of enslaved people living in America at the time.
Coffee carried a similar contradiction. The beverage that fueled conversations that inspired America’s fight for independence — centered on the ideals of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness — depended on enslavement.
“Coffee had this paradoxical effect, that it did promote revolutionary thought,” Pendergrast says. “But it was also grown by slaves.”
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