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The Teacher in Room 1214

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The Teacher in Room 1214

It was 45 seconds too late, but the teacher had a plan.

A gunman had just barraged her classroom with an AR-15, killing two students and injuring four others before turning to a classroom across the hall. The bullet-riddled walls were crumbling. Ceiling tiles were falling. If the shooter came back to kill more of her students, the teacher decided, she would stand up and shout, “We love you.”

The teacher was Ivy Schamis, whose husband would be waiting at home with a Valentine’s Day dinner; whose son was planning a wedding she couldn’t imagine missing; whose curriculum for this class — History of the Holocaust — had just moments earlier stirred a discussion about hate on campuses.

We love you. These would surely be her final words, Ms. Schamis thought. She knew her plan was futile — irrational, even. But with no stop-the-bleed kit, no shield, no help, words were all she had to show the children that an adult had put up a fight.

The moment never came. The gunman doubled back to the class across the hall, but not to Room 1214. At the command of a SWAT team, Ms. Schamis climbed over bodies and ran with her surviving students down the blood-smeared hallway, out the doors, and into the blinding light.

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What waited for her there, in the days and months and years ahead, would be a whole new role in the lives of the 30 students who had survived. For them, she would be what she couldn’t be for the two who died: a lifeline.

She felt she owed them that. She had been the only adult in the room.

The morning after the 2018 massacre at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Fla., Ms. Schamis rose before dawn and began cleaning her bloodstained suede boots. Seventeen people had been killed, including Nick Dworet and Helena Ramsay, who had been in her class. Some of the surviving students had abandoned their blood- and glass-caked shoes on the school pavement, but Ms. Schamis had the strange feeling she ought to take hers home and wipe them down, over and over, until they came clean.

She left the boots out by the closet to dry and then phoned the moving company that was set to relocate her family to a new neighborhood in a few weeks. She no longer had time to pack boxes, she explained to the movers. She needed to attend to her students.

Within a few hours, Ms. Schamis was corresponding with her students by text. Today, she adamantly denies that she started the Room 1214 text thread, but everyone else seems to remember it that way. She used it to organize car pools to wakes and funerals, to check in on the wounded and to plan a meet-up at Cold Stone Creamery, just so everyone could be together.

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When the school reopened two weeks later, Ms. Schamis was there, shuffling between campus buildings with a cart of teaching supplies. The school’s psychological support offerings for students included coloring books and Play-Doh. She found them useless. She arranged to instead have a service dog, Luigi, a golden retriever, join her classes for the rest of the year.

When Luigi arrived, tail wagging madly, students from throughout the school came to play with him — including some who had otherwise refused to return to campus. The following fall, Ms. Schamis arranged to have everyone from Room 1214 placed in her study hall for support.

Ms. Schamis had known some of the students for only six weeks before the shooting, but she seemed to have a preternatural sense of what each of them needed. Rebecca Bogart, who had been a senior, felt so lost after what she had witnessed that Ms. Schamis encouraged her to apply for a scholarship to go abroad to Ecuador. The physical distance finally gave her mental space from the event.

Ally Allen, who had watched the killer approach through a glass door panel, kept waking in the night with tears pouring down her face. When Ms. Schamis dropped a picture of a German shepherd puppy in the Room 1214 group chat — a future service dog, in need of a home — Ally felt deep down the dog was meant to be hers. She received Dakota the morning after the one-year anniversary of the shooting: a new beginning.

And Kelly Plaur, who had called 911 four times during the shooting, was at a music festival when the crowd began running from what sounded like gunshots. This time, it was Ms. Schamis she called. Keep calm, the teacher coached. Keep me on the phone, and keep running.

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Students called and texted her with their grief, their panic attacks, their drug use, their suicidal thoughts. What their own parents could not fully understand — the worst moment of their lives — Ms. Schamis could.

One day, she took some of the students to meet with a survivor of the 1999 Columbine High School shooting in Colorado. His experience of being shot and watching a friend die was remarkably similar to theirs, and Ms. Schamis hoped that his journey toward healing would assure them that together, they could persevere.

But weeks later, Ms. Schamis’s phone began buzzing incessantly. It was the Room 1214 text thread. The Columbine survivor had died of an overdose.

Ms. Schamis committed herself to staying at Marjory Stoneman Douglas until every surviving student from Room 1214 graduated in the spring of 2019. It was not easy. On her commute each morning, she had the same troubling premonition: her car plummeting off the expressway overpass. Finally, her husband, Jeff, suggested a daily ritual. When she approached the bridge, she was to call him to discuss something grounding and ordinary, like what they would have for dinner.

At the 2019 graduation ceremony, Ms. Schamis wept: Helena should have received a diploma. Ms. Schamis found Helena’s brother and hugged him, but Helena’s mother stood back. Ms. Schamis wondered what the woman felt seeing the teacher who had been with her daughter.

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That fall, she took the semester off and then moved to Washington, D.C., forgoing her full pension in search of peace.

Washington was where Ms. Schamis truly began to mourn. She joined a two-year waiting list for therapy. She reached out to Ally Allen, whom she had referred to a breeder for a service dog, realizing for the first time she needed one of her own.

But two Parkland survivor charities she approached for financial aid to train a dog said they could not help her. As a teacher, she wasn’t entirely surprised: She didn’t recall a school administrator ever once checking in on her. She had never heard any school official admit that she had not received active shooter training, or that her classroom had no stop-the-bleed kit. And she had never been able to reclaim mementos of almost 20 years of teaching that remained inside Room 1214.

Ms. Schamis, who has a master’s degree in education and specialized in Holocaust studies, had spent almost her entire career at Marjory Stoneman Douglas. She had loved teaching social studies in part because it allowed her to watch students see themselves anew: As they made sense of current events in the context of history, she witnessed their opinions changing and their prejudices being renounced.

There was nothing more meaningful to her. But she could not return to another classroom.

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So she took a job as an office manager at a small private school, accepting a major pay cut to avoid being in a classroom where she would again be responsible for students’ safety.

When she started, she discovered the office manager station was in the front foyer of the building — in a way, the first line of defense.

The students, too, scattered around the country, but the Room 1214 text thread bound them together. Over time, there were updates: Ally Allen, inspired by Ms. Schamis, was preparing to become a teacher. Hannah Carbocci was pursing a career in criminal justice and writing her thesis on warning signs in school shooters. Catie Krakow was getting a degree in mental health counseling and shared tips on how the others could care for themselves as another anniversary approached.

I hope everyone is doing as well as they could be, wrote Elena Blanco, who had been assigned to the seat behind Nick.

You guys are forever family, replied Matt Walker, whose desk had been next to Helena’s.

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As long as I am breathing, Ms. Schamis told them, I will always be available for you.

A year later, soon after the Uvalde, Texas, shooting, Ms. Schamis woke up to a message on the thread that had landed during the night: Uvalde was one too many, a student wrote; he couldn’t take his anguish anymore.

Ms. Schamis had taken a suicide prevention course the summer after the massacre. She knew the steps. She called the former student, asking if he had a specific plan to end his life. He did. She kept him engaged with questions — what was something he was looking forward to? — while she sought emergency help for him from five states away.

She spent the next five hours in a maze of dead ends. She tried the suicide hotline, but they could not help her, since she was not the person in distress. She did a 40-minute intake call with a Florida behavioral health center, only to learn they did not serve his region. She connected with a mental health hospital, but it turned out to be private. By now, she was weeping.

Eventually she reached the instructor of her suicide prevention class from all those years ago, who told her to call the West Palm Beach Police Department and explain that the distressed young man was a survivor of Parkland’s school shooting.

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The boy ultimately received emergency care and survived. But not before the dispatcher who answered Ms. Schamis’s call admitted that with all the school shootings, she could not specifically recall what happened in Parkland.

Four years after the shooting, a process server arrived at Ms. Schamis’s home with a subpoena calling on her to testify at the killer’s sentencing trial. Ms. Schamis hid.

The text thread began to buzz with messages from former students who would also be required to appear. Ms. Schamis reverted to her usual role. I’m with you as you testify, she wrote.

Daniela Menescal, who had gone on to study psychology in Boston and still had shrapnel embedded in her leg and back, was distressed about going alone.

I’ll ask if I can be with you, Ms. Schamis told Daniela.

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As the sun rose on a Wednesday morning, she texted the group that it was her turn. Dylan Kraemer, who had already taken the stand, replied fast.

You got this! If you look straight when u testify, he wrote, you can’t see the shooter.

On the witness stand, Ms. Schamis spoke with the tone of a teacher in front of a class, nodding for emphasis and gesturing around the room. Her gold necklace glimmered under the lights as she described the layout of Room 1214, the lesson she had been teaching, the first deafening blasts.

Her eyes trailed over to the defense table. There he was, the man who had stolen Nick’s chance to swim at the Olympics; who had robbed Helena of her plans to attend college in England.

The killer kept his head down. The prosecutor, Mike Satz, brought over a photograph, Exhibit 3S, and asked Ms. Schamis to name the subject.

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“That’s my girl,” she said, putting her hand over her mouth, her voice cracking. “Helena. Helena Ramsay.”

Then he brought over another, Exhibit 3R.

“And that’s Nicholas Dworet,” she said. “Handsome boy.”

Parents in the courtroom shifted in their seats. Others shook their heads. Ms. Schamis looked up to the ceiling, blinking the tears from her eyes, patting her cheeks with a tissue and adjusting her glasses back on her nose where they had been.

Hannah Carbocci — watching the trial live from home — knew her teacher wouldn’t see the group chat until later, but she sent an encouraging message anyway: Mrs Schamis you’re a rockstar, she wrote.

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There were no further questions, the lawyer in the courtroom said.

Ms. Schamis climbed down from the stand. That afternoon, she typed a response in the thread: Love you so.

As the sixth anniversary of the shooting approached last year, Lexi Gendron was struggling. She had tried to go to college, but like many of the others, found herself too preoccupied with classroom seating arrangements to focus. She couldn’t have her back to the door, but facing it meant watching for a killer.

After one class, she dropped out, instead working at a casino and a winery before moving to Texas. Now, she was about to start nursing school in hopes of a career in pediatrics — which meant returning to a classroom once again.

Just spilling my heart out, she wrote on the thread one night. Lexi had thrown away all her #MSDStrong memorabilia in search of a fresh start in Texas — only to realize that those tangible objects had been her puzzle pieces to a day that had never fully sunk in.

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I’m so upset with myself for letting that stuff go, she wrote. I can’t believe I did that.

Ms. Schamis was the first to reply, offering to send T-shirts, bracelets, buttons and pins. Let me know whatever will make you feel better, she wrote.

She understood the pull of Parkland. When the school’s 1200 building was set to be demolished, Ms. Schamis had reached out to the school board, desperate to return to her classroom one more time. The jury, bereaved parents, journalists, and even Vice President Kamala Harris were granted permission to enter the building, but Ms. Schamis was not. Instead, prosecutors sent a package to her home in Washington: a five-year-old box of stale Valentine’s Day chocolates from her desk in Room 1214.

On the morning the demolition was set to begin, Ms. Schamis heard a radio segment as she drove to her new school in Washington. Bereaved families in Parkland were cathartically hammering off bits of the school building before the team came in to clear it away.

Ms. Schamis, shaking, called Jeff. They discussed the weather.

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Her last mental image of her own classroom comes from a press pool report in which strangers described the artifacts left inside her fourth-period Holocaust class: a 2017-18 school year planner; a whiteboard bearing Ms. Schamis’s learning objective, “to be aware of the world and its surroundings”; bullet strike marks across the desks; and the dried blood of Nick and Helena coating a book titled “Tell Them We Remember.”

Last summer, Ms. Schamis sat on the patio of a Mexican restaurant in Washington, recounting that day in 2018. Her German shepherd, Sayde, sprawled beneath her chair. All these years later, she still seemed uneasy. “That’s what keeps me up at night, thinking I was the only adult in there,” she said.

Jeff sat across from her. He reminded her of the bonds she had forged with her students: the pancake breakfasts at their place; the letters of recommendation for graduate schools; the tattoos that several had gotten — Room 1214 — including one who had it drawn in Ms. Schamis’s handwriting.

“But I didn’t save them — I didn’t save them,” she said. Her words hung in the air, jarring against the faint mariachi music coming through the patio speakers.

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Jeff leaned forward and said with a seasoned assurance, “How could anybody save somebody from an AR-15?”

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Shipwreck Reveals Fate of Vanished World War I Coast Guard Cutter

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Shipwreck Reveals Fate of Vanished World War I Coast Guard Cutter

The sea was stormy on Sept. 26, 1918, as a convoy of merchant ships navigated the Bristol Channel in southern England. Escorting them was the Tampa, a 190-foot U.S. Coast Guard cutter with the mission of protecting the boats from German submarines.

The cutter separated from the convoy in the misty night to take on supplies and coal at a port. And then it disappeared. For more than a century, its fate has been an enduring naval mystery of World War I.

This week, British divers announced that the wreck of the Tampa had at last been found, nestled 320 feet deep in murky waters about 50 miles off the Cornish coast.

A torpedo from a German submarine killed all those aboard the cutter: 111 Coast Guardsmen, four U.S. Navy personnel and 15 British Navy personnel and civilians.

Adm. Kevin Lunday, commandant of the Coast Guard, said that the Tampa was the largest single American naval combat loss of life in World War I and that it had left “an enduring grief in our service.”

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The discovery was the culmination of a three-year effort by the Gasperados Dive Team, a group of British explorers and researchers. They combed shipping logs and wartime messages, and collaborated with the Coast Guard to pinpoint the path and resting place of the vanished vessel.

Barbara Mortimer, a Gasperados researcher, collated scraps of information, sometimes single lines of text that by themselves offered little to go on. But once all the information was meticulously pieced together, she and her teammates narrowed the search to an area clustered with thousands of wrecks from warships, commercial ships and fishing vessels lost over centuries.

The timeline of the Tampa’s final moments slowly emerged.

“Urgent. Priority,” said a telegram dated Sept. 27, 1918, sent to the admiralty in London. “USS Tampa detached herself from convoy.”

The telegram provided the longitude and latitude of that last sighting. At 7 p.m., the ship was seen on the horizon, steering toward the port of Milford Haven, it said. At 8:45 p.m., a wireless operator “felt the shock of an underwater explosion,” the telegram said.

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Then, in the hours that followed, Milford Haven reported that the Tampa was 12 hours overdue for its scheduled arrival.

The research team assembled a number of clues about where the Tampa ended up.

One telegram said a seaplane had spotted a “considerable wreckage” field of seven to eight square miles. Two bodies, in Tampa uniforms, eventually washed ashore and were buried in Wales, Ms. Mortimer said in an interview. She said the researchers also studied German U-boat records.

The Coast Guard provided historical records, technical data and archival images of the ship’s features so divers knew what to look for in the deep.

In April 2023, the team made its first two dives looking for the Tampa. Seven more followed, and an assortment of shipwrecks were spotted and examined.

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On Sunday they zeroed in on an area where a British hydrographic survey had noted a “significant magnetic anomaly” suggesting the possible location of a steel wreck.

That information was checked against convoy records, Ms. Mortimer said. The team decided, “It’s worth a look,” she said. But she added, “I did not have high expectations.”

Dominic Robinson, one of the team’s divers, lowered himself into the cold, dark waters of the Celtic Sea in the late afternoon of April 26.

At about 311 feet down, he spotted wreckage, piled high. As he drifted slowly over the debris field, his light picked up objects from the chaotic jumble. Some stood out: There was a brass fire extinguisher, an anchor, shell casings and a high-pressure steam boiler that was used in the engines of ships like the Tampa.

Surveying the mound, Mr. Robinson said in an interview that he had a “gut feeling” that the ship had been blown apart, making the bow crumble and absorb the impact. “And the rest of the ship settled down behind it,” he said.

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Then he drifted over some crockery. Another member of the team, Jacob MacKenzie, found a similar piece that was inscribed with the maker’s mark: “New Jersey.”

They had an “American connection,” Mr. Robinson said.

“That instantly connects me with the people on the ship,” he said in a video of the dive. “They would have eaten out of those bowls. All these people would have had parents, would have had nearest and dearest, and none of them knew where they are.”

The Coast Guard is gathering data from the Gasperados’ finds to confirm it as an officially designated war grave, said William H. Thiesen, the Coast Guard’s Atlantic area historian.

The Coast Guard has been contacting the families of each lost Tampa crew member over many years, awarding them a posthumous Purple Heart medal, Mr. Thiesen said.

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“It provides closure to a chapter that has been open for 100 years,” he said.

Jeremy Davids, 48, of Florida said that a relative, Wesley James Nobles, died while serving aboard the Tampa at the age of 20.

“Drowned foreign waters sinking of Tampa 9-26-1918,” the official record of Mr. Nobles’ death says. Mr. Nobles had a rating of “boy,” an enlisted rank for younger crew members.

“It feels good knowing the fact that not only him but the other soldiers who lost their lives that day can finally rest in peace,” Mr. Davids said in an interview.

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Bald eagle ‘massaging’ its mate? AI deepfakes collide with the laws of the wild

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Bald eagle ‘massaging’ its mate? AI deepfakes collide with the laws of the wild

Shadow gingerly places one taloned foot, then the other, on Jackie as she hunkers down on the nest.

With Big Bear Lake glittering in the distance, he raises each foot in a kneading motion — evoking a bald eagle massage.

“Somehow, it says everything about their bond,” reads the caption on the 15-second video posted to Facebook.

It looks tender. It looks real.

It isn’t.

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The clip is AI-generated.

Jackie and Shadow — made world-famous by a 24-hour livestream — aren’t the only animals falsely depicted in deepfakes. AI wildlife videos have flooded social media platforms like YouTube, Instagram and TikTok, racking up millions of views and likes. Some are whimsical, like a handful of bunnies hopping on a trampoline. Others take a more menacing tone, like a jaguar facing off with a dog in a snowy backyard.

Far from benign, some experts say the videos can skew how people view and even interact with wildlife — potentially leading to perilous encounters. They may also undermine viewers’ growing desire to tune into nature to escape the frenetic rhythms of daily life. Repeated exposure could erode trust in media and institutions generally, with one Reddit user proclaiming, “Can’t even watch real animal videos because 90% of them are AI.” There are also legal implications.

The deception works because the depictions are often hyperrealistic. Even a producer for the Dodo, an animal-centric media outlet, admitted to falling for the bouncing bunnies. Often the videos appear to be ripped from trail or security cameras, enhancing vibes of authenticity. In the competitive economy for people’s attention, the videos can help win looks and likes, potentially driving ad revenue for those who post them.

Megan Brief, a digital marketing coordinator for Natural Habitat Adventures, an ecotourism company, had just returned from Svalbard, a far-flung Norwegian archipelago teeming with polar bears and walruses.

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Her social media feed piled up with video after video of polar bear rescues, such as fishermen or scientists hauling a freezing, struggling baby polar bear onto a ship. On board, people snapped selfies with the cub before reuniting it with its mom.

She knew they were fake because she was well-versed in the behavior of the snow-white predators, which are fiercely protective of cubs. As the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service warns, these “large, powerful carnivores” can easily injure or kill people. It would also be illegal to intervene.

But thousands of commenters took what they saw at face value.

(Photo illustration by Jim Cooke / Los Angeles Times; Source photo / Getty Images)

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“It shows that you can have this close proximity with wildlife that is not only dangerous to you, but it’s dangerous to the animal,” said Brief, who is also a wildlife photographer. Social media is filled with AI animal rescues of all types.

“That’s everyone’s dream, to be one with all the animals and with wildlife,” she added, “but you have to respect their habitat and their behavior and give them the space that they need.”

On the flip side, she said the videos also can perpetuate myths that predators such as wolves and mountain lions are more dangerous than they actually are. It’s easy to see how videos could inflame heated debates over managing such animals, in California and beyond.

In a paper published last September in “Conservation Biology,” researchers said the videos also can make people think animals are more abundant, or less threatened, than they are. They might donate or volunteer less as a result.

“If the public is unable to distinguish between actual threats to biodiversity and fictionalized narratives, the perceived urgency to act may diminish,” the researchers wrote.

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Jenny Voisard, media and website manager for Friends of Big Bear Valley, a nonprofit that operates cameras trained on Jackie and Shadow, said her inbox is overloaded with complaints about AI content. Grifters are nothing new — the nonprofit has long contended with fake accounts — but they’ve evolved with the technology.

People who follow the beloved eagles are fed more content about them by the algorithm, and she said AI rises to the top of the feed. (That seems to explain why this reporter is often served the fakes when opening Facebook.)

“People get very upset when they see someone depicting Jackie and Shadow in an unnatural way or wrong, or when it looks like they could be in danger,” said Voisard. Some clips showed owls and ravens attacking the couple, especially riling up fans.

The nonprofit recently trademarked its name and is in the process of copyrighting its livestream. She said the point is to protect what they create, such as merchandise and a detailed log of what the eagles are up to, from fakers.

However, ownership in the age of AI is fraught. Voisard said their livestream can be copyrighted because it’s not just a fixed camera; humans operate it and make choices, like zooming in.

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Kristelia García, a professor at Georgetown Law, said such creative choices do give livestream operators a good claim to copyright. Whether something violates it is another matter.

If someone asks a large language model to create a three-minute video featuring eagles without drawing on copyrighted material, no harm no foul, she said. But if they feed the AI program the nonprofit’s footage and ask it to manipulate it, that could make for an infringement claim.

But would it be worth fighting? “Copyright litigation is really expensive and very unpredictable,” said García, who focuses on copyright law. She suspects that only if a lot of money were at stake would a nonprofit be willing to take the risk.

As for concerns about misinformation, “we don’t really have a legal recourse for, like, ‘You got fooled,’” she said. Famous people enjoy certain protections over their name, image and likeness, but famous animals don’t.

The fake video of Shadow “massaging” Jackie casts the eagles in a positive light. It arguably perpetuates the avian love story that Friends of Big Bear Valley describes in its own posts.

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Yet Voisard believes people are increasingly tuning into animal livestreams to escape artificiality. Ironically, AI may drive people toward real nature precisely because it can’t replicate it.

“The livestream isn’t being in nature, but it’s the closest thing that a lot of people get,” she said. “Being outside is the best thing for us and our health and our well-being and making that connection. To me, AI is not that.”

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How Running Shoes Have Evolved, From Ancient Greece to a Record-Breaking Marathon Time

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How Running Shoes Have Evolved, From Ancient Greece to a Record-Breaking Marathon Time

When the messenger Pheidippides ran from the battlefield of Marathon to Athens to announce the Greek victory over the Persians in the 5th century B.C., he did it without shoes. His time was not officially tracked.

Millenniums later, at the London Marathon on Sunday, Sabastian Sawe and Yomif Kejelcha became the first to break the two-hour barrier in an official marathon, and Tigist Assefa set a women’s world record. All three did it in featherweight footwear.

The shoe, the Adidas Adizero Adios Pro Evo 3, weighs 97 grams, or about 3.4 ounces, depending on the shoe size. It’s the lightest running sneaker approved for competition. It sold out on Monday.

The race to near-weightlessness has been a driving force of innovation in running sneakers in the 25 centuries since shoeless Pheidippides’s run.

Heavier shoes are slower, a 2016 study showed, although that analysis was only for three-kilometer time trials. The study’s authors hid lead pellets in some Nike racing shoes and didn’t tell the subjects.

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“When we added 100 grams per shoe, they ran about 1 percent slower, and when we added 300 grams, they ran about 3 percent slower,” said Rodger Kram, an emeritus professor of integrative physiology at the University of Colorado, Boulder. He called the 1 percent per 100 grams “a rule of toe.”

But it took many steps before running shoes evolved to the blistering pace they now allow.

Shoes once relied on leather, wood or metal reinforcements that were heavy and stiff. The rise of the rubber sole added flexibility and waterproofing. Better durability and grip were bonuses.

People could also run or walk in rubber soles without being heard. That’s why they’re called sneakers.

The first flat-soled rubber and canvas shoe was developed in 1868, almost 30 years after Charles Goodyear discovered the process of curing rubber called vulcanization. Converse and Keds made them popular in the 1920s.

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“Converse All Stars are the Platonic ideal of the sneaker,” said Nicholas Smith, the author of “Kicks: The Great American Story of Sneakers.”

He noted they have not changed much.

“Canvas on top, rubber at the bottom.”

Competitive runners soon faced a trade-off: a heavier shoe with better traction or a lighter flat sole.

The heavier option, which transferred maximum force from the runner’s foot to the ground for acceleration, came from J.W. Foster of Bolton, England, who had the insight that led to the first metal spikes in shoes in the 1890s. Top British runners, including those competing in the 1924 Paris Olympics, wore these new spikes to notch their fastest times. Their story is told in “Chariots of Fire,” the Oscar-winning 1981 film.

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It was at another Olympics, in Berlin, that Jesse Owens wore six-spiked shoes created by Adidas to become the most successful runner of the 1936 Games. His shoes, made of specially tanned calf leather and cowhide, weighed 201 grams.

Running tracks made of urethane, a rubber compound, began to emerge in the 1960s. When one was installed in 1969 at the University of Oregon, the track coach, Bill Bowerman, found that runners’ spikes dug in too deep while flat shoes offered too little traction.

Having breakfast one morning in 1971, he noticed that the grid pattern on the waffle iron his wife was using might just be what his runners needed to get a grip on the track.

He tried pouring liquid urethane into the waffle iron, but only managed to seal it shut. He kept trying other waffle irons until he had the mold he wanted, according to Nike archivists.

But Bowerman wanted more than grippier sneakers.

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“He was also devoted to making the lightest running shoe possible,” said Elizabeth Semmelhack, the author of “Out of the Box: The Rise of Sneaker Culture.”

Bowerman’s shoe, which Nike called the Waffle Trainer, “stands out because it had an extremely thin rubber sole but with a high tread, and then the upper of the shoe was made out of nylon.”

The light weight also helped bring running to the masses.

“You can bet there wouldn’t be so many people running today if they had to carry all the extra baggage we had back then,” Bowerman, a Nike co-founder, said in 1979.

The waffle-pattern nubs on the soles compressed under weight and helped bring spring to a runner’s step. But they only hinted at how sneakers could be cushioned. For many runners, it was not enough.

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Then Nike introduced ethylene-vinyl acetate, better known as EVA foam, on the heel of its Cortez shoe in 1972. EVA offered a thicker, air-infused layer of separation from the road and absorbed more of the shock. The age of adding thick slabs of rubber for cushioning was over.

That led to a new quest that continues today: How much cushioning can you build into a shoe?

Sneaker makers next turned to a gas and a semisolid to help spread the energy of a foot’s impact with the ground.

In 1979, the Nike Air Tailwind began the airbag era, in which pressurized gas is stored in a flexible urethane bag within the sole.

Asics pioneered gel cushioning technology in 1986 with its silicone-based shock absorption. Nike countered in 1987 with the Air Max 1, which had a “window” in the sole designed to show off the air pocket. “At the time that was the cutting edge,” Mr. Smith said.

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Though air is lighter than foam, it had to be kept in a rubber vessel, which added weight. So did adding silicone gel packets to the heel and forefoot.

While air bubbles felt more springy, and gel more dampening, they both were able to absorb shocks longer than the standard foam.

An icon of the 1990s tackled a different problem: how laces become loosened during a run. Reebok, building upon its wildly successful Pump basketball sneakers, which could be inflated with the press of a button on the tongue, introduced the Instapump Fury, a colorful, open-paneled, split-soled running sneaker.

“The Instapump used an air bladder that could fit your particular foot, the nuances of your own foot, very, very closely,” Ms. Semmelhack said. “Then you didn’t have to adjust any lacing throughout your run or at any time. So it was very innovative.”

But as new technologies made foam lighter, shoemakers soon couldn’t get enough of it.

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One brand, Hoka, wedged so much cushy foam into its soles, beginning in 2009, that the shoes looked swollen. Runners could hardly “feel the ground anymore,” Smith said. The company’s designs helped push amateur runners to chunkier shoes.

But it was the thick-soled Nike Vaporflys that captured the most attention. They came with a carbon-fiber plate in the midsole that was very light and gave stability to all the squishy foam. The plate stores and releases energy with each stride, and is meant to spring runners forward.

The Vaporflys also use polyether block amide, or PEBA, a bouncier, lighter foam. The twin technologies led to the nickname “super shoes.”

“There was concern that this additional innovation in the running shoe was the equivalent of doping,” Semmelhack said. The shoes cushioned the feet of all three medalists in the men’s marathon at the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics. The New York Times found in 2019 that the shoes gave a significant advantage, but they were never banned.

Adidas used its lightest foam in the sole of the Adizero Adios Pro Evo 3, which were worn by Sunday’s record-breaking marathoners. It also said that the shoe has carbon fiber rods to mimic the human foot’s bone structure.

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In other words, closer to the bare feet in Pheidippides’s run.

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