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Seizures, broken spines and vomiting: Scientific testing that helped facilitate D-Day

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Seizures, broken spines and vomiting: Scientific testing that helped facilitate D-Day

An American hauls in a HA-19 Japanese submarine following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. Submarine warfare would prove crucial during WWII.

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An American hauls in a HA-19 Japanese submarine following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. Submarine warfare would prove crucial during WWII.

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Early on in World War II, the leaders of the Allied forces understood that the war effort would hinge on submarine warfare. Though the D-Day invasion wouldn’t take place until June 6, 1944, biomedical engineer Rachel Lance says British scientists at University College London were studying issues of submarine survival as early as 1940.

“[They] … were looking at these problems of undersea survival, of how people breathe inside enclosed spaces,” Lance says. “Eventually, that transitioned into diving and diving technologies, and all of those things together were used to scout the beaches of Normandy and facilitate the landings of D-Day.”

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Lance has conducted research for the military, using a hyperbaric chamber at Duke University in which the air and the pressure can be controlled to mimic what divers and submarines are exposed to. Her new book, Chamber Divers, is about research conducted by scientists at UCL before and during World War II — including protocols for operating the miniature submarines used on scouting missions in advance of D-Day.

“These tiny subs had a smaller gas volume, which made the rules of breathing physiology even more time critical,” Lance explains. “The scientists … did this experiment by just putting themselves in a tank, closing the door and waiting to see how long they could physically handle the amount of carbon dioxide in there before they ended up with migraines and projectile vomiting.”

Lance notes that UCL scientists subjected themselves to extremes that would be considered “wildly unethical and illegal today.” Some sustained serious injuries — including seizures and broken spines — in the hyperbaric chamber.

“One of them … dislocated her jaw five times in the same dive,” Lance says. But, she adds, “they were doing it because they were in this context of the Blitz and the bombings and the horrors of World War II happening around them.”

Interview highlights

Chamber Divers, by Rachel Lance

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Chamber Divers, by Rachel Lance

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On what inspired to her look into WWII-era underwater research

I read this paper about carbon dioxide and it wasn’t extremely exciting. It concluded, essentially, that carbon dioxide is bad for you and it hurts, which I already knew. But something about the date bothered me. It was published in 1941, which was obviously wartime, and it was published by a group of British scientists. In scientific research, the paper usually comes out about a year after the research was done. So that meant that these people were working on this question of carbon dioxide in 1940, in London. The other thing that was happening at that time period was the Blitz. So something about carbon dioxide was so critical to them that they were looking at it while they were being bombed. From there, I just kept pulling at the thread until the entire story became evident of what they were actually working on.

On WWII scientists conducting dangerous experiments on themselves in hyperbaric chambers

They put themselves in there for things that would not be legal today, if I tried to do that. Even if I had subjects who consented, I would possibly be criminally prosecuted. They were putting themselves in there and breathing pure oxygen and rocketing the chamber down as quickly as they go to see if they could kind of outrun the negative effects. They were taking some of these gasses, like oxygen, down to depths that we now know are extremely dangerous and toxic. And they were continuing to do this even after they were having severe injuries. With modern research, we have what are called serious adverse event reporting requirements. So if something bad happens in our research, we have to sit down and have a conversation about the ethics of asking people to continue. Whereas this group, because their goal was to prevent military deaths during the invasion of Normandy, they figured better we do it here in the lab.

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On blast injuries on land vs. underwater

There are two major differences. The first is that we don’t have to worry about some of the things that we do on land, such as shrapnel and burns, because the density of the water slows down a lot of those effects before they can reach more than a meter or two. The other big difference is that we have to worry a lot more about the shockwave. In air, the shockwave decreases very quickly, but in water, just like sound, it travels a lot more readily. So imagine how far we can hear whale sounds. You can hear whale sounds for miles and miles. This same type of impact, where the density of water moves these waveforms along more efficiently than in air, occurs with the shockwave from explosions. So you see different injury patterns from the underwater explosives, but most of them tend to be internal, which is kind of terrifying.

On the pressure of water

We have one atmosphere that we breathe, that atmosphere of gas we forget about pretty often, but it does sit on top of us all the time. Once we go under the water, we have additional atmospheres that essentially get piled on. So every 33 feet, or 10 meters, if you’re metric, is equal to another atmosphere of pressure. The deeper we go, the more that pressure increases simply from the weight of that water pushing down.

On why people who emerge from deep water too quickly experience the bends

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Basically, the human lungs are very weak. They’re not a strong organ. And so they’re really good at what they do in terms of processing gas, but they do it passively. So they essentially just let that gas flow come in and out of the body. What that means for breathing is that when we breathe a gas, we have to breathe the gas of the approximately same pressure as the air around us or the water around us. When you’re underwater, that means you’re breathing high-pressure gas. That means that that increased pressure can help those gasses absorb into your bodily tissues. The air around us is about 78 to 79% nitrogen. So as we’re underwater and we’re breathing that higher pressurized gas, that nitrogen and the other gasses absorb into our tissues. … With decompression sickness — the bends — that’s when we come back up … too quickly, and the nitrogen comes out, instead of harmlessly in the bloodstream processed by the lungs, it comes out as bubbles. That’s really bad. It causes all kinds of physiological issues.

Cassion workers constructing the Brooklyn Bridge, circa 1888

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Cassion workers constructing the Brooklyn Bridge, circa 1888

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On the men who died in the underwater construction of the Brooklyn Bridge

You don’t know what’s going to be a problem until somebody goes first. Those unfortunate caisson workers. They were the first ones who were really experiencing decompression sickness and experiencing how brutal and lethal that can be. … They sort of just powered through. They were having all these deaths and they just hired more workers — which is perhaps why a lot of the workers there started quitting toward the end of the project.

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But after that, it was used by the scientific and research community as an example of a thing to stop. This is kind of why a lot of us, myself included, get into science. When we see things happening, we have the drive to explore them, understand what’s happening, and then try and prevent the next case from going on.Somewhere down there are wooden caisson shells in which people worked until they literally died. I think that’s incredibly powerful in terms of remembering the context of where society comes from and how it’s been built.

Sam Briger and Thea Challoner produced and edited this interview for broadcast. Bridget Bentz, Molly Seavy-Nesper and Meghan Sullivan adapted it for the web.

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Sunday Puzzle: Between the lines

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Sunday Puzzle: Between the lines

Sunday Puzzle

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Sunday Puzzle

On-air challenge

The on-air challenge goes here.

Last week’s challenge

Last week’s challenge comes from Joshua Green, of Columbia, Md. Think of a popular film franchise with many sequels. Hidden in consecutive letters inside its name is a place mentioned multiple times in the Bible. Replace that place with a single letter and you’ll name a Major League Baseball team. What franchise and team are these?

Answer: “The Avengers” –> (Detroit) Tigers

Winner

Erin Kealiher of Silver Spring, Maryland.

This week’s challenge

This week’s challenge comes from Joseph Young, of St. Cloud, Minn. Name a famous actor of the past, seven letter first name and seven letter last name. Remove three consecutive letters from him last name and the remaining letters in order will be the well known lead character from a long running series of films. What actor and character are these?

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If you know the answer to the challenge, submit it here by Thursday, May 21 at 3 p.m. ET. Listeners whose answers are selected win a chance to play the on-air puzzle. Important: include a phone number where we can reach you.

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For Tory Burch, a 20-year fashion career is a sport driven by endurance, discipline and grit

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For Tory Burch, a 20-year fashion career is a sport driven by endurance, discipline and grit

Clarke wears Tory Burch multi screw heeled sandals and Gemini Link pendant necklaces.

This story is part of Image’s May Momentum issue, which looks at art as a sport and sport as an art.

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It’s 2 p.m. on a quintessentially balmy Los Angeles afternoon when I spot fashion designer Tory Burch in the lobby of the iconic Beverly Hills Hotel. She’s wearing oversize sunglasses, a crisp collared shirt, an even crisper pleated navy skirt and leopard-print pumps. I start walking over to introduce myself, but a fan gets there first. This would happen several times during our meeting at the hotel — wherever Burch goes, a small flock of admirers form.

Burch is in town for the Fashion Trust U.S. Awards, where she was recognized with the designer of the year award. Ever since she took back creative control of her brand about six years ago, Tory Burch is back at the center of the American fashion zeitgeist. Compared to the resort-ready tunics and preppy Reva flats that embodied Tory 1.0 in the 2000s, Tory 2.0 has evolved into a “weirder,” more innovative version of itself. Think: a jersey dress with knotted ruching in an unexpected shade of green, or leather mules with an inverted heel that makes you look twice. While the Tory customer of the past felt neatly aligned with the country club aesthetic, the Tory customer today embodies a modern sensibility of polish and dynamism. You could easily imagine these clothes on a marketing exec at the office, a buyer at fashion week or an author on book tour.

There’s no doubt the “Tory-ssance” is in full swing. During New York Fashion Week, my TikTok page was flooded with behind-the-scenes clips of model it-girl Alex Consani getting ready for Tory Burch’s runway show. On the nouveau fashion blogs of Substack, women exchange styling ideas for the brand’s signature pierced mules. And on the streets of L.A. — from Sunset and Rodeo to Melrose and Wilshire — colorful Tory Burch logo sandals abound.

Tory Burch Mellow Mary Jane jellies, Gemini Link pendant necklace, and printed asymmetric viscose dress.

Clarke wears Tory Burch Mellow Mary Jane jellies, Gemini Link pendant necklace, and printed asymmetric viscose dress.

We sat down for tea at the Polo Lounge and talked about her design instincts, what women actually want to wear, freaky footwear and how a long career in fashion is its own kind of sport.

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Viv Chen: Hi, Tory, it’s a pleasure to meet. Congratulations on receiving the designer of the year award from Fashion Trust U.S. this week. What does that kind of recognition mean to you at this point in your career?

Tory Burch: It’s a huge honor, and to be recognized by your peers is even more special. Being in that room and meeting some of the up-and-coming new designers, the creative energy was just palpable and super exciting to take in. I love what Tania [Fares] has built to support emerging designers.

VC: I heard you got to dress Pamela Anderson.

TB: Yeah, she presented the award to me. Pamela and I met through our boys, so it was very special because we have a friendship and I admire her so much.

VC: This award feels like another marker of the “Tory-ssance.” There’s been such a compelling story over the last few years about how you’ve reinvented the brand to feel fresh and relevant again. How do you see that evolution?

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Clarke wears Tory Burch beaded heel sandals and cotton jacquard shirtdress.

Clarke wears Tory Burch beaded heel sandals and cotton jacquard shirtdress.

TB: We’re just starting in many ways. When I first started the company 20 years ago, it was very much a creative journey. As time went on, I was also running the company and became the CEO. After a certain point, managing both was not doable. About six years ago — it was probably the one silver lining out of COVID — I had the opportunity to reset and give up my role as CEO. Now, 100% of my time is dedicated to the creative process. It’s something we’re still very much in the process of — not at the peak. I still have a lot I want to do.

VC: You redesigned your Rodeo Drive store last year. What is it about the L.A. market that influenced the design decisions you made?

TB: First of all, it’s really funny because a lot of people think I’m from L.A. I love the casual elegance of L.A. I’m very outdoorsy, I’m very sporty, so there’s a lot of things that I relate to from a design standpoint. And I’ve always been obsessed with interior design. It wasn’t as much about L.A., but it was more about using the light here. We opened up the top of the store with skylights, so it had shapes that the front of the store brought in with the light.

VC: You seem to have unlocked what women actually want to wear. Tell me more about your design perspective.

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TB: I like an ease and a realness to what we do, but balanced with creativity and innovation. So it’s taking things that are classic in spirit, but then giving a strangeness to it. Like something where you look closer and see an interesting fabric or different stitching. I like tension.

Melissa wears Tory Burch pierced strappy heel sandals and printed silk dress.

Melissa wears Tory Burch pierced strappy heel sandals and printed silk dress.

Clarke wears Tory Burch Hank ballet sneakers.

Clarke wears Tory Burch Hank ballet sneakers.

VC: I want to talk about footwear, because you’ve designed some major hits. The Reva flat was such an iconic shoe in the 2000s. And now, your pierced mules are fueling the contemporary rise in “freaky footwear.” What is it about footwear that is such a powerful category for you?

TB: I’ve always loved footwear. When I started with the pierced [mule], I was looking at toe rings. I thought, how do you incorporate the concept of that into a mule? It was like an exercise in architecture. Ever since I’ve taken back the reins of the creative process, I’ve focused on how footwear makes your leg look and how it feels. The Reva is interesting because it was meant to be a foldable shoe to throw in your bag, but also something you could walk in all day.

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VC: What shoes are you wearing today?

TB: I’m wearing the pierced pump.

VC: How do movement and women in motion factor into how you design? I’m thinking about Tory Sport, which I think was ahead of the curve of the athleisure boom.

TB: We started in 2015. It was me and a very small team starting with what I felt like was missing in the market — which was great-looking clothing that was not restrictive, but also technical. Something you could move in from morning until evening. I also saw the prevalence of streetwear and the way women were dressing at the time.

VC: Culturally, when we talk about fashion designers, we focus on skills like creativity and artistry. Whereas in the language of sports, we talk about endurance, discipline and grit. Do you view your 20-plus year career in fashion as its own kind of sport?

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Melissa wears Tory Burch jelly heel flip-flops.

Melissa wears Tory Burch jelly heel flip-flops.

TB: I do. It is a sport, and there’s a physicality to it as well. I think some people question whether I still go to the office. I don’t think I’ve had lunch in the last 21 years. I can be at the office for 10-hour days, which is like an athlete where it’s about discipline and grit and endurance.

VC: Athletes always get asked about the unglamorous work behind the wins. What’s your equivalent of daily reps?

TB: The mental capacity you need to have. Sometimes I make 4,000 decisions in a day. I touch every product. But I’m also lucky in that my days never really look the same either, because I do so many different parts of the business — whether it’s store design, marketing or the actual design of different categories.

VC: Beyond your brand, what is the impact you are trying to make with the Tory Burch Foundation?

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TB: We launched it in 2009 to support women entrepreneurs through mentoring, capital and community. We’ve committed to adding a billion dollars to the economy by 2030 through our fellows and entrepreneurs. We’re having a breakfast in three weeks honoring Anna Wintour. It’s our second fundraiser — last year it was Martha Stewart.

VC: What is the long game for Tory Burch?

TB: I don’t know that I’d sit and think about the long game as much as I think about trying to be present. I’m always interested in the zeitgeist and how we fit into that, but not necessarily to be on trend. I just am someone that has that curiosity to push things forward.

Viv Chen is a Bay Areabased fashion writer, and founder of the Molehill newsletter.

Clarke wears Tory Burch beaded heel sandals and cotton jacquard shirtdress.

Photography Jennelle Fong
Styling Bin X. Nguyen
Talent Melissa Baltierrez, Clarke Brown
Nails Lila Robles
Videography D.J. Theriot
Lighting Assistant Phillip Acevedo

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Bulgarian banger ‘Bangaranga’ bags country its 1st Eurovision win

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Bulgarian banger ‘Bangaranga’ bags country its 1st Eurovision win

Dara and her song “Bangaranga” skyrocketed Bulgaria to first place at the 70th Eurovision Song Contest

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Bulgaria has won the 70th Eurovision Song Contest — the country’s first-ever win.

The achievement surprised many because Bulgaria wasn’t among the favorites to win in 2026. But with its catchy “Welcome to the riot!” refrain and bouncy vibe, performer Dara’s banging anthem “Bangaranga” bested 24 other nations for the glittery global musical crown at the finals on Saturday in Vienna, Austria.

Israel came in second, as it did last year. Ten competitors were eliminated from the original group of 35 in the semi-finals earlier this week.

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In his appraisal of his 10 favorite Eurovision 2026 songs, NPR critic Glen Weldon called “Bangaranga” an “insanely catchy bop” and praised its “deep, profound, abiding grooviness.”

“Oh my god!” Dara yelled, as she accepted the Crystal Microphone, the event’s glass trophy, from last year’s winner, JJ of Austria.

As with other global cultural events, such as the Venice Biennale currently underway in Italy, the glittery annual songfest is intended as a display of goodwill and togetherness between nations. “In a world often divided, we stand united by music,” said host Michael Ostrowski at the conclusion of this year’s event.

Last year’s contest, held in Basel, Switzerland, saw record viewership, reaching 166 million viewers across 37 markets.

Israel prepared for ‘boos’

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Eurovision has long strived to prioritize artistry over political antagonism. However, as with the Biennale, Eurovision 2026 found itself at the center of protests related to the war in Gaza.

Five countries — Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Slovenia and Spain — pulled out between September and December 2025 in protest over event organizer European Broadcasting Union’s decision to allow Israel to participate amid the ongoing war in Gaza.

In this year’s finals, Israeli singer Noam Bettan performed the romantic breakup song “Michelle” in French, Hebrew and English. Unlike in the semifinal, when the artist sang over chants of “stop the genocide,” Bettan was not booed — at least audibly. The artist told The Times of Israel last month he had been practicing performing in front of hecklers.

There were both anti- and pro-Israel demonstrations in Vienna this week.

Pro-Palestinian protests at the last two contests called for Israel to be disbarred from Eurovision over its role in the conflict, as well as allegations it attempted to manipulate voting to favor its entries. The European Broadcasting Union changed its voting rules in response. Among other requirements, contestants and broadcasters are prohibited from taking part in promotional campaigns by third parties including governments. Countries outside of Europe, such as Israel, participate in Eurovision because eligibility is based on European Broadcasting Union membership, not necessarily geographics.

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A double standard?

Although Israel’s participation is the biggest cause of dissent in 2026, the country avoided being banned from the event.

That was not the case with Russia, which was disbarred indefinitely from participating in the contest soon after launching its full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022.

European Broadcasting Union deputy director general Jean Philip De Tender defended his organization’s decision to allow Israel to perform, the European edition of Politico reported ahead of the contest’s final, because Israel’s public broadcaster KAN, the body behind its entry, is independent, whereas Russia’s state broadcaster, VGTRK, is run by the Russian government.

In a social media post on Friday, Spanish Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez decried the European Broadcasting Union for its “double standard.”

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