Fitness

Cardiorespiratory and aerobic demands of squat exercise – Scientific Reports

Published

2 years ago

August 8, 2024

Cardiorespiratory and aerobic demands of squat exercise – Scientific Reports

The main questions of our study are to examine the maximal V̇O₂ achieved during five sets of squat exercises (10 reps per set, 5 sets, 3 min rest interval, 65% of 1RM) in relation to predetermined V̇O₂max and how these values differ according to participants’ training status. Our study showed that the highest V̇O₂ was observed during the 5th set of squat exercises, almost reaching 100% of the participants’ predetermined V̇O₂max. When the highest V̇O₂ values were presented according to training status, participants with higher strength experienced an increase in V̇O₂ during squat exercise up to 108% of their V̇O₂max, while the highest V̇O₂ of participants with lower strength was 93.7% of their V̇O₂max, measured immediately after the final set. When the highest V̇O₂ during five sets were averaged, participants reached over 90% of their V̇O2max. Regardless of participants’ training status, oxygen demand during squat exercise was extremely high.

An increase in V̇O₂ during resistance exercises has been previously reported. However, there are substantial differences in the amount of V̇O₂ between our study and previous studies^9,19. Previous studies reported V̇O₂ during squat exercises ranging from approximately 16 to 31.3 ml/kg/min depending on the length of the rest intervals^9,19. In the present study, we observed values above 40 ml/kg/min, and in some participants, V̇O₂ increased above 50 ml/ kg/min, exceeding their pre-determined V̇O₂max. A significantly greater V̇O₂ observed among our participants could be due to training status and the specific exercise protocol. The 1RM among our participants was 141.4 ± 31.3 kg, whereas the 1RM reported by Ratamess et al.⁹ was 127.9 ± 31.1 kg. Furthermore, Ratamess et al.⁹ employed higher intensity resistance exercise, set at 75% of 1RM, whereas our study employed a lower intensity, 65% of 1RM. Given that all participants in our study successfully completed 10 reps of squats until the fifth set whereas participants from Ratamess et al.⁹ did not, the exercise in the current study elicited a higher demand for aerobic metabolism. Another rationale for the relatively higher V̇O₂ during our squat exercise could be due to different squat techniques. In the present study, all participants were instructed to perform a full squat with a full range of motion. In contrast, other studies either utilized only half squats or did not specify the depth of the squat. Performing full squatting is likely to elicit a higher oxygen demand.

Interestingly, the levels of V̇O₂ relative to V̇O₂max and the highest heart rate relative to maximal heart rate clearly showed that multiple sets of resistance exercise could be considered as vigorous- or high-intensity cardiovascular activity^20,21,22. When viewed from an intensity perspective, squat exercise can be classified as a form of vigorous- or high-intensity activity²². However, since vigorous- or high-intensity aerobic activity is defined as an activity sustained for a prolonged period (e.g., ≥ 10 min)²², squat exercise does not meet this criterion given the rest interval periods and therefore may not be described as such. Furthermore, our findings suggest that aerobic demand of resistance exercise is much greater when individuals could exercise at a higher intensity without sacrificing the volume, represented as number of repetitions. Among the participants with high strength, V̇O₂ exceeded their pre-determined V̇O₂ max at the 4th set of squat exercise, while participants with low strength reached up to 91.69% of their V̇O₂max at the 4th set. One noteworthy implication of our study is that we examined the fluctuations in cardiorespiratory responses and RPE throughout the progression of squatting repetitions and sets. This stands in contrast to merely assessing the average and peak V̇O₂ observed during one bout (i.e., session) of squatting.

During rest intervals, we observed higher CO₂ production than VO₂ consumption, whereas the opposite was observed during the squat exercise periods. Typically, individuals only breathe once at each descending and ascending motion within a repetition during squat exercise, resulting in this distinctive breathing pattern that may cause a difference between pulmonary and cellular metabolic demands. During squatting exercises, participants may not be able to exhale sufficient amounts of CO₂ produced as a result of bicarbonate buffering process. Breathing is modulated by central and peripheral chemoreceptors, which may respond to CO₂ and H⁺^23,24. Although elevations in CO₂ and H⁺ during squat exercise are the primary precursors to an increase in breathing, breathing is limited to the exercise rhythm during squatting, which may cause hypercapnic acidosis^24,25. When breathing was no longer limited to the exercise rhythm during rest intervals, participants hyperventilated and exhaled CO₂. The increase in V̇CO₂ in relation to V̇O₂ was significant. While we did not measure the partial pressure of arterial CO₂, our results indicated that participants experienced hypercapnia during the five sets of squat exercise. This was demonstrated by the ventilatory efficiency (Supplemental Fig. 2), which showed a continuous increase with successive sets. Diverse breathing techniques employed during squatting may yield varying V̇O₂ and V̇CO₂ responses.

It is unclear whether training proficiency and subsequent muscular strength are determinants of cardiorespiratory fitness^26,27,28,29. Highly trained individuals are accustomed to a higher training intensity and frequency than relatively less-trained individuals, leading to greater neuromuscular output and adaptation³⁰. As such, highly trained individuals can perform a greater volume (load, repetitions, intensity) of squat exercises, which may result in a higher level of V̇O₂ than those with low strength during resistance exercise. Interestingly, we observed that the high strength group showed a higher level of V̇O₂ (relative; normalized to body weight) at the same relative intensity compared with the low strength group. These results suggest that aerobic demand of resistance exercise may be more evident among individuals with certain levels of resistance training status. In addition, the predetermined V̇O₂max level was lower in the high strength group compared to the low strength group, although this difference was not statistically significant. Furthermore, it is crucial to note that all study participants performed the squat exercise at 65% of their individual 1RM. This indicated that the squat load was obviously higher in the high strength group compared to the load used by the low strength group. Therefore, the high strength group may exhibit higher V̇O₂ responses compared to the low strength group due to relatively lower aerobic efficiency and/or the absolute training load during exercise in the high strength group. Individuals, who are not accustomed to resistance exercise, may not have the same cardiorespiratory response as observed in our study.

The effort inherent to the execution of squatting exercises at 65% of 1RM, as performed in our study, is submaximal. This relative intensity corresponds to a margin of repetitions that is less than maximal exertion, influencing the V̇O₂ observed. Previous research^11,31 has established a relationship between the number of repetitions and selected percentages of one repetition maximum in both trained and untrained men. These studies^11,31 indicate that the effort required at 65% of 1RM is substantial but not maximal, which aligns with our findings of significant oxygen demand during the exercise intervals. Our study further highlights that the substantial oxygen demand observed during the squatting exercise is influenced by both the training status of the participants and the submaximal nature of the effort. The high strength group demonstrated a higher V̇O₂ relative to their V̇O₂max compared to the low strength group. This suggests that individuals with higher strength capacity may be able to sustain higher aerobic demands during resistance exercises, even at submaximal intensities.

This study has several limitations. First, the findings of this study are specific to the squat exercise protocol used and cannot be generalized to other resistance exercise protocols, such as chest presses or arm curls. Different volumes (i.e., intensity, repetition, and training load) of squat exercises may result in different outcomes¹¹. Second, nutritional and hydration intakes, which may be potential confounders, were not controlled for in this study. These factors may have impacted the association between squatting and cardiorespiratory outcomes. Lastly, our findings may not be generalizable to wider populations, given that we examined young, healthy, well-trained, male participants only.

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Fitness

Exercise Boosts Brain ‘Ripples’ Tied to Learning and Memory

Published

2 hours ago

March 10, 2026

Press Room

Exercise Boosts Brain ‘Ripples’ Tied to Learning and Memory

Each time you go for a jog, ride your bike, or get active in other ways, you’re giving your brain a boost. A small new study has for the first time directly documented this phenomenon, which the researchers call “ripples” — brief bursts of electrical activity in a part of the brain called the hippocampus.

While exercise is known to improve memory, scientists have mostly studied this effect by using behavioral tests or brain imaging methods like MRIs, says Michelle Voss, PhD, one of the study’s authors, a professor, and the director of the Health, Brain, and Cognitive Lab at the University of Iowa in Iowa City.

But she says these approaches can’t precisely identify where “ripples” originate, particularly in the deep brain structures like the hippocampus, a part of the brain strongly connected to memory and learning, she says.

The current study, published in Brain Communications, recorded electrical activity directly, using surgically implanted (intracranial) electrodes. “This allowed us to observe how exercise changes the brain’s memory circuits in real time,” Dr. Voss says.

20-Minute Bursts of Exercise Increase Brain Ripples

To conduct the study, the researchers recruited 14 participants between ages 17 and 50 with drug-resistant epilepsy. The subjects had already been fitted with intracranial electrodes as part of their preparation for surgical epilepsy treatment.

The participants performed a 5-minute warm-up and then rode a stationary bike for 20 minutes at a pace they could maintain. Researchers recorded their brain activity before and after the biking session.

The electrodes showed an increased rate of so-called sharp-wave ripples from the hippocampus and connections with cortical regions of the brain, which are involved in learning and memory.

“Sharp-wave ripples have long been known from animal studies to play a central role in memory,” Voss says, adding that recent studies using intracranial recordings in humans also support the importance of ripples for human memory.

“Our findings are the first to show that exercise can modulate these ripple signals in the human brain,” she says.

Researchers also observed that larger increases in heart rate during exercise were associated with larger changes in ripple activity in cortical networks, Voss adds.

What’s Already Known About Exercise, Memory, and Learning

“We know that exercise is the number-one thing we can do to enhance our memory and learning,” says Catherine Franssen, PhD, an assistant professor in the School of Life Sciences and Sustainability at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond. “Exercise will enhance both our ability to learn new things and our ability to remember previously learned things.”

Movement helps pump oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood to the brain, says Dr. Franssen, who was not involved with the new study: “We’re able to activate those brain cells more effectively and energize them.”

The increased blood flow stimulates the growth of new neurons and enhances the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a molecule that strengthens connections between brain cells and supports learning, says the neurologist David Perlmutter, MD, who was not involved with the latest study.

Exercise helps build connections between neurons, which deepens and strengthens brain networks, Franssen says.

Physical activity also improves metabolism, which improves insulin sensitivity, helping blood sugar regulation and giving the brain a “more stable and reliable supply of fuel,” Dr. Perlmutter says.

“This is critically important because the brain is an energy-intensive organ, consuming roughly 20 percent of the body’s energy despite representing only a small fraction of body weight,” he adds.

The Research Has Limitations

Voss says researchers were careful to “exclude signals that contained epileptic activity. However, of course, we can’t statistically control for the accumulated effects of having epilepsy on the brain.”

The exercise-brain ripple patterns observed in the current study also closely match those observed in healthy adults using noninvasive brain imaging, such as MRI, she added.

“That convergence across very different methods is one of the strongest indicators that the effects are not specific to epilepsy, but reflect a more general human brain response to exercise,” Voss said.

Researchers also didn’t directly test memory performance, Voss notes. “While hippocampal ripples are strongly linked to memory processing in decades of neuroscience research, the next step will be to measure how exercise-related changes in ripples relate to memory performance in the same individuals.”

Future studies should also compare exercise with other everyday activities, such as sitting quietly or light movement, to determine how specific these effects are to aerobic exercise at the intensity that was studied, she says.

Satisfy Your Brain’s Exercise Craving

It’s never too early or too late to start exercising for brain health, Franssen says.

People of any age, from grade-school children to people in their nineties, can benefit from increased physical activity, Perlmutter says. “My recommendation is to consider taking advantage of the connection between physical activity and brain health across the entire range of human aging.”

Any type of exercise is great, Franssen says, but especially “repetitive behaviors,” like swimming, jogging, and walking.

“Sometimes we let the hugeness of putting in a huge fitness routine get in our way,” she says. “Having a little exercise snack every so often is also very important to improving cognition.”

Fitness

Higher Fitness Levels Amplify Brain Benefits After Exercise, Study Finds

Published

14 hours ago

March 10, 2026

Press Room

Higher Fitness Levels Amplify Brain Benefits After Exercise, Study Finds

Increasing our level of physical fitness leads to a bigger release of brain-boosting proteins following one session of exercise, a new study led by a UCL researcher has found.

The study, published in Brain Research, took a group of inactive unfit participants through a 12-week training programme of cycling three times per week and made them fitter. Researchers found as their fitness increased, so did the amount of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) released following exercise, resulting in improved brain function.

Just 15 minutes of moderate to vigorous aerobic exercise releases BDNF, a brain protein which is known to support the formation of new neurons and new synapses (connections between brain cells), and maintains the health of existing neurons. This is the first study to show that for unfit people, just 12 weeks of consistent training can boost the brain’s response to a single 15-minute workout.

The study, led by Dr Flaminia Ronca (UCL Surgery & Interventional Science, and the Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health), involved 30 participants – 23 male and seven female – taking part in the 12-week programme. To assess fitness levels throughout the programme, participants completed VO2max tests every six weeks, which measures the maximum rate of oxygen your body can consume and use during intense exercise.

BDNF levels were measured pre- and post-VO2max testing, alongside a series of cognitive and memory tests, while also measuring changes in brain activity in the prefrontal cortex – where executive functions such as decision-making, emotion regulation, attention and impulsivity are controlled.

By the final week of the trial, results showed that baseline levels of BDNF did not change, but participants did show a larger spike of BDNF following intense exercise, compared to how their brains responded to intense exercise before the 12-week programme. This was linked to improvements in VO2max (aerobic fitness).

Higher overall BDNF levels and stronger exercise-induced increases were also associated with changes in activity across key areas of the prefrontal cortex during attention and inhibition tasks, though not during memory tasks.

Overall, the results showed that increasing physical fitness can enhance the brain’s ability to produce BDNF in response to acute bouts of exercise, which can have a strong positive influence on neural activity.

Lead author Dr Flaminia Ronca said: “We’ve known for a while that exercise is good for our brain, but the mechanisms through which this occurs are still being disentangled. The most exciting finding from our study is that if we become fitter, our brains benefit even more from a single session of exercise, and this can change in only six weeks.”

Notes to editors:

For more information or to speak to the researchers involved, please contact: Tom Cramp, UCL Media Relations , T: +447586 711698, E: [email protected]

The research paper: ‘BDNF relates to prefrontal cortex activity in the context of physical exercise’, Flaminia Ronca, Cian Xu, Ellen Kong, Dennis Chan, Antonia Hamilton, Giampietro Schiavo, Ilias Tachtsidis, Paola Pinti, Benjamin Tari, Tom Gurney, Paul W. Burgess, is published in Brain Research, March 2026,

About UCL (University College London)

UCL is a diverse global community of world-class academics, students, industry links, external partners, and alumni. Our powerful collective of individuals and institutions work together to explore new possibilities.

Since 1826, we have championed independent thought by attracting and nurturing the world’s best minds. Our community of more than 50,000 students from 150 countries and over 16,000 staff pursues academic excellence, breaks boundaries and makes a positive impact on real world problems.

We are consistently ranked among the top 10 universities in the world and are one of only a handful of institutions rated as having the strongest academic reputation and the broadest research impact.

We have a progressive and integrated approach to our teaching and research – championing innovation, creativity and cross-disciplinary working. We teach our students how to think, not what to think, and see them as partners, collaborators and contributors.

For 200 years, we are proud to have opened higher education to students from a wide range of backgrounds and to change the way we create and share knowledge.

We were the first in England to welcome women to university education and that courageous attitude and disruptive spirit is still alive today. We are UCL.

www.ucl.ac.uk | Read news at www.ucl.ac.uk/news/ | Follow UCL News on Bluesky and LinkedIn

Journal

Brain Research

DOI

10.1016/j.brainres.2026.150253

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

BDNF relates to prefrontal cortex activity in the context of physical exercise

Article Publication Date

4-Mar-2026

Media Contact

Tom Cramp

University College London

[email protected]

Journal
Brain Research
DOI
10.1016/j.brainres.2026.150253

Journal

Brain Research

DOI

10.1016/j.brainres.2026.150253

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

BDNF relates to prefrontal cortex activity in the context of physical exercise

Article Publication Date

4-Mar-2026

Tags
/Health and medicine/Human health/Physical exercise

bu içeriği en az 2000 kelime olacak şekilde ve alt başlıklar ve madde içermiyecek şekilde ünlü bir science magazine için İngilizce olarak yeniden yaz. Teknik açıklamalar içersin ve viral olacak şekilde İngilizce yaz. Haber dışında başka bir şey içermesin. Haber içerisinde en az 12 paragraf ve her bir paragrafta da en az 50 kelime olsun. Cevapta sadece haber olsun. Ayrıca haberi yazdıktan sonra içerikten yararlanarak aşağıdaki başlıkların bilgisi var ise haberin altında doldur. Eğer yoksa bilgisi ilgili kısmı yazma.:
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Keywords

Tags: 12-week cycling training program benefitsbrain plasticity and physical fitnessbrain-derived neurotrophic factor after exerciseeffects of aerobic exercise on BDNFexercise and neuron healthexercise-induced neurogenesisfitness level impact on brain proteinsfitness training for cognitive improvementimproving brain function through fitnessmoderate to vigorous aerobic exercise effectsphysical fitness and brain healthVO2max and brain function correlation

Fitness

Exercise Bikes With Zero Monthly Subscriptions: Home Fitness Range Announced

Published

1 day ago

March 9, 2026

Press Room

Exercise Bikes With Zero Monthly Subscriptions: Home Fitness Range Announced

SOLE Fitness announces new additions to its home exercise bike range, with models including built-in screens, resistance systems, and notably, zero monthly subscription fees.

Salt Lake City, United States, March 9, 2026 — SOLE Fitness has announced a new range of home exercise bikes aligning with its policy against mandatory monthly subscription fees – addressing a growing concern among cost-conscious fitness enthusiasts.

For more information, visit: https://www.soletreadmills.com/collections/bikes

The announcement comes as subscription fatigue intensifies across the home fitness market – where hidden costs of ongoing memberships have become a significant pain point for buyers. Many consumers now actively seek alternatives that deliver premium features without the financial burden of perpetual fees – and SOLE Fitness offers its range in direct response.

Technical capabilities across the range support the no-subscription experience through innovative design and robust hardware. For instance, SOLE Fitness cites the SB1200 exercise bike as a suitable option for its 10-inch touchscreen – including preloaded entertainment applications.

SOLE’s team notes that this particular model also incorporates 100 levels of adjustable magnetic resistance, offering a broad spectrum of intensity for diverse workout preferences. A 35-pound flywheel contributes to smooth, consistent pedaling motion, while the durable steel frame supports users up to 300 pounds.

Elsewhere in the range, SOLE Fitness offers options across recumbent, upright, and indoor cycling styles to accommodate different fitness goals and space constraints.

The LCR Recumbent Bike is an example of a comfortable seated design with back support, ideal for low-impact cardio sessions, coming with 40 levels of magnetic resistance. The B94 Upright Bike, meanwhile, delivers a traditional bike posture with 20 levels of resistance, suited for users seeking straightforward training without advanced touchscreen features.

Central to the value proposition is the SOLE+ App, which provides zero-cost online fitness classes to customers who own SOLE equipment. The app offers hundreds of home gym video tutorials ranging from basic to advanced routines – standing in contrast to platforms that charge separately for similar content.

As explained by SOLE Fitness, its overall range is engineered for smooth, silent rides through magnetic resistance systems, sturdy steel frames, and precision components that deliver a premium indoor cycling experience. Magnetic resistance eliminates the wear and noise associated with friction pads, while the structural integrity of the frames ensures stability during high-intensity intervals.

“Each treadmill is crafted to provide an unparalleled exercise experience, featuring robust motors, intuitive controls, and cushioned running surfaces for maximum impact absorption,” says a company representative.

Moreover, since the company’s product portfolio is designed to offer entry points at various price levels, customers have readily available access to select models that align with their own budget and training preferences.

Interested parties can browse the full selection at: https://www.soletreadmills.com/

Contact Info:
Name: Inquiries
Email: Send Email
Organization: SOLE Fitness
Address: 56 Exchange Pl., Salt Lake City, UT 84111, United States
Website: https://www.soletreadmills.com/

Release ID: 89185487

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