Crypto
Cryptocurrency laws and regulations
Overview of regulations, how they’re regulated, key challenges, and more resources for legal professionals
Legal terms · Securities law · Cryptocurrency laws
The expansion of virtual currencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum has put U.S. regulators in a dilemma between encouraging innovation and safeguarding investors.
The evolution of cryptocurrency is primarily due to the rise in technology worldwide. It has pushed financial boundaries, leaving with the possibility that cryptocurrencies may become the central element of the global economy.
The significance and impact of the use of cryptocurrency in the U.S. highlights the need to regulate it. However, there is a challenge in establishing a clear policy framework. With the digital revolution taking place through cryptocurrency, the state and federal governments are trying to determine how to define their role in regulating this new asset class in the best way possible.
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What is cryptocurrency?
What is cryptocurrency regulation?
How is cryptocurrency regulated?
State regulations
International Standard-Setting Bodies
Challenges in the US crypto regulation
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What is cryptocurrency?
Cryptocurrency is a type of digital money that is a decentralized digital asset designed as a medium of exchange, utilizing cryptographic protocols to regulate the creation of new units. It exists only online and is not controlled by any government, central bank, or authority.
A digital or virtual currency that is not issued by any central authority, is designed to function as a medium of exchange, and uses encryption technology to regulate the generation of units of currency, to verify fund transfers, and to prevent counterfeiting.
(12th ed. 2024)
Cryptocurrency uses a secure technology called cryptography to keep transactions safe and verify fund transfers to prevent fraud. It operates on a decentralized system and transactions are recorded on a public ledger called blockchain. The regulatory treatment of cryptocurrency varies across jurisdictions, with legal considerations encompassing anti-money laundering compliance, securities laws, taxation, and consumer protection frameworks.
What is cryptocurrency regulation?
Crypto regulations are the legal rules and guidelines that are present and issued by governments to shape how digital assets such as virtual currency operate. These laws have varied approaches across nations.
In the U.S., there are various states wherein some are friendly towards market participants embracing crypto with clear regulations, while others ban it outright.
Around 60 percent of U.S. citizens lack confidence in cryptocurrency trading or investment, considering the existing systems to be unreliable or unsafe. One primary reason for this distrust may be the absence of a single, consistent set of laws to regulate cryptocurrencies.
The existing regulations range from covering everything about how cryptocurrencies are to be created and traded to how they interact with traditional financial systems. Well-defined rules can help the crypto market in the following ways:
- Help in protecting investors from scams and market manipulation
- Ensure that there is transparency in the transaction, along with accurate information
- Help prevent illegal activities like money laundering, fraud, misleading information, etc
- Clarify the tax rules that apply to digital currencies
- Encourages market participation and confidence in the investors while encouraging blockchain innovation
- Regulates the risks that are or may be associated with the transactions
How is cryptocurrency regulated?
No defined regulation is used to regulate cryptocurrency in the U.S. as of 2025.
However, a major crypto legislation was introduced in 2024, i.e. the Financial Innovation and Technology for the 21st Century Act (or FIT21), that has been passed by the U.S. House of Representatives but has not yet been enforced. The legislation is aimed at emphasizing the role of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) as a lead crypto regulator in the U.S.
In the absence of one framework for cryptocurrency, the authorities try to regulate and enforce the already existing laws both at the federal and state levels, which are as follows.
Federal regulations
At the Federal level, regulations have predominantly dealt with various administrative agencies and bureaus.
The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
The SEC primarily deals with securities such as convertible notes, stocks, debentures, etc. They aim to protect investors through mandatory registration of the securities that qualify for it.
The SEC brought lawsuits against major platforms such as Coinbase, Binance, Kraken, etc, for violation of regulations.
Due to the difference between the cryptocurrency and securities, a judicial split emerged in 2023, with Southern District of New York (SDNY) Judge Torres ruling in SEC v. Ripple Labs that only the institutional sales of XRP were securities, while Judge Rakoff in SEC v. Terraform Labs held that Terraform’s UST stablecoin was a security.
Courts remain divided on this issue at the time of this writing.
Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC)
CFTC is a federal agency that is tasked with regulating U.S. commodities and derivative markets.
The CFTC regulates cryptocurrencies as commodities under the Commodity Exchange Act and has developed jurisdiction in derivative markets, all of which are set forth in decisions such as CFTC v. McDonnell (2018) and CFTC v. My Big Coin Pay (2018), etc.
In 2017, the CFTC introduced a self-certification process for bitcoin futures which allowed exchanges to launch crypto derivatives. For enforcement measures, the CFTC has engaged in high-profile enforcement matters against Uniswap, Binance, Celsius, Ooki DAO, and secured an order against defaulted FTX to pay a penalty of $12.7 billion.
Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
Since 2014, the IRS has treated cryptocurrency as a digital representation of value which is different from a representation of the U.S. dollar or any other real currency. It functions as a unit of account, a store of value, and a medium of exchange.
Being categorized as property makes each sale, trade, or buying of cryptocurrency taxable under capital gains taxes like stocks or property. Regardless of whether one incurs profit or loss, correct reporting of the same must be done according to the IRS.
US Department of the Treasury’s Financial Crimes Enforcement Unit (FinCEN)
FinCEN was the first U.S. federal regulator to address cryptocurrency, by issuing guidance back in 2013.
It governs virtual currency businesses and wallet services as Money Services Businesses and mandates them to have anti-money laundering and counter-terrorism financing regulations, specifically on Money Services Businesses dealing with Convertible Virtual Currency.
US Department of the Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC)
OFAC is a regulatory agency that administers and enforces U.S. economic and trade sanctions to maintain national security and foreign policy interests.
These sanctions target countries, terrorists, narcotics traffickers, and other threats including those involved in cryptocurrency activities. OFAC applies the same sanctions compliance standards to transactions involving digital assets as it does to those involving traditional currency.
U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ)
In October 2021, the DOJ created the National Cryptocurrency Enforcement Team (NCET) to enhance its investigative resources to control criminal activity in the crypto environment.
The DOJ has been involved in several high-profile cases and has even charged the crypto market with insider trading, including against former Coinbase exchange employees.
Federal Deposit Insurance Company (FDIC)
After issuing joint prudential crypto releases in November 2021, the FDIC instructed all FDIC-supervised institutions in April 2022 to notify if they were conducting crypto business or intended to engage in it. This was required so the FDIC could review the information provided.
Federal Reserve Board (FRB)
FRB supervises the banking institutions and banking activities.
It issued reports on stablecoins and central bank digital currency in January 2022. After that jointly in 2023, with FDIC and OCC, the FRB released two statements on the risks that are associated with crypto assets and the participants.
The FRB also issued supervisory guidance requiring banks under its oversight to notify their lead supervisory contact before engaging in crypto-asset activities.
State regulations
Financial regulators for cryptocurrency at the state level are as follows:
New York State Department of Financial Services (NYDFS)
In contrast to other crypto regulations that have been prominently adopted by other states, New York has a different regime that is focused on customer protection.
It was the first comprehensive crypto regulatory regime among major U.S. states which led the way by introducing the concept of BitLicensees — used to self-certify the listing or adoption of new virtual currencies. However, it is generally considered to be prohibitive and burdensome by the market participants.
California Department of Financial Protection and Innovation (DFPI)
On one hand, the DFPI has shown a friendly approach to the crypto market participants providing a narrow reading of state licensing requirements. On the other hand, it has implemented a comprehensive state crypto regulatory framework.
State attorneys general, including the New York State Attorney General (NYAG)
NYAG is one of the crypto regulators in the U.S. that has actively participated in filing charges and settling with the crypto platforms and market participants of all sizes.
International Standard-Setting Bodies
There is a constant rise in the involvement of digital currency transactions around the world, which often lightens the line between the borders as well.
Now, given the evolving complexities of digital asset markets, several prominent international financial standard-setting bodies have undertaken initiatives to regulate cryptocurrencies and make sure that they are regulated across jurisdictions.
Bank for International Settlements (BIS)
BIS acts as the central bank, and therefore it plays a role in shaping the regulatory framework for Central Bank Digital Currencies and stablecoins. BIS has issued various reports on stablecoin arrangements.
Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS)
BCBS is the primary global standard-setting body for prudential bank regulation, which has developed a framework to govern the exposure of banks to crypto assets.
Financial Stability Board (FSB)
The FSB contains the regulatory, supervisory, and oversight recommendations for crypto-asset markets which establishes high-level global standards for crypto regulation.
Financial Action Task Force (FATF)
FATF is a global authority on anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing, it has issued extensive guidance on mitigating illicit finance risks in the crypto sector.
3 Key challenges
Cryptocurrency regulation in the U.S. presents significant challenges due to its fragmented nature, requiring businesses to comply with a complex framework of overlapping and, at times, conflicting federal and state laws.
- Since each state has different regulations, it makes nationwide operations difficult.
- Money transmitter licensing rules differ across states, which may be friendly or strict, making compliance restrictive and complex.
- There is a lack of clear crypto-specific laws which forces businesses to interpret existing financial regulations in different ways, leading to uncertainty and misinterpretation.
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Crypto
Newport Beach man sentenced for role in $263 million cryptocurrency scheme
A Newport Beach man was sentenced to more than five years in prison after federal prosecutors said he laundered at least $3.5 million as part of a multi-state criminal enterprise.
Evan Tangeman, 22, was sentenced in Washington, D.C., Friday, April 24, to five years and 10 months in prison after he pleaded guilty in December to taking part in a Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) conspiracy in which participants stole more than $263 million in cryptocurrency and used the money to live lavish lifestyles, according to a U.S. Department of Justice statement.
Tangeman was the ninth person to plead guilty in connection with the scheme, which prosecutors said began around October 2023 and lasted through at least May 2025. The enterprise, prosecutors said, grew from friendships created through online gaming platforms and included co-conspirators from California, New York, Florida, Connecticut and abroad.
Members of the group included database hackers, organizers, target identifiers, callers and residential burglars who targeted hardware virtual currency wallets, which store cryptocurrency, prosecutors said.
Tangeman, who also went by “Tate,” “E,” and “Evan|Exchanger,” money laundered for the group, helped his co-conspirators take millions from victims and also received money and luxury items like exotic cars for his work, according to the DOJ.
When the first members of the criminal enterprise were arrested, Malone Lam of Los Angeles and Miami and Jeandiel Serrano of Los Angeles, Tangeman told his co-defendant Tucker Desmond of Huntington Beach to destroy digital devices that belonged to enterprise members, prosecutors said.
Using stolen virtual currency, members of the enterprise bought nightclub services sometimes totaling up to $500,000 a night, luxury handbags worth thousands of dollars that were given away at parties and luxury watches worth between $100,000 and $500,000. They also used the stolen money to purchase luxury clothing; rental homes in Los Angeles, the Hamptons and Miami; private jet rentals; private security guards and various exotic cars valued between $100,000 to $3.8 million, according to the DOJ.
Tangeman also converted the cryptocurrency to fiat cash, or money not tied to gold or other assets, with the help of real estate agents in Los Angeles, bought mansions for members of the scheme that were valued between $4 million and $9 million, prosecutors said.
He also arranged homes in Miami when the group of conspirators, who were unemployed men mostly under 20 years old, moved there in September 2024. The men bought the homes because they worried they would draw law enforcement’s attention if they rented large homes for tens of thousands of dollars each month when they had no income, according to the DOJ.
One of Tangeman’s co-conspirators arranged the purchase of a widebody Lamborghini Urus for Tangeman, and when law enforcement executed a search warrant at his home, they found and seized other luxury vehicles, including a 2022 Rolls Royce Ghost valued at more than $300,000 and a Porsche GT3 RS.
Crypto
Miners Beat Bitcoin by 70% in 2026 as Terawulf Locks $12.8B in AI Contracts
Key Takeaways:
- Bitcoin mining stocks have dramatically outperformed BTC itself in 2026, with most of the top ten publicly listed mining organizations posting year-to-date (YTD) gains of 25–73% while bitcoin sits roughly 12% in the red since January 1.
- The outperformance is not a mining story; it’s an artificial intelligence (AI) infrastructure story. The leaders have collectively locked in tens of billions in contracted HPC revenue through long-term hyperscaler deals, effectively revaluing themselves as data center operators.
- Terawulf (WULF) leads the top ten public miners with a 73.58% YTD gain after securing over $12.8 billion in contracted HPC revenue, with deals anchored by Google-backed Fluidstack and Core42 across sites totaling over 1 GW of available power.
Anthropic and Google Are Signing Billion-Dollar Leases With Bitcoin Miners
Most of the ten largest publicly traded miners have outpaced the underlying asset by a wide margin. Terawulf (Nasdaq: WULF) leads the group with a 73.58% gain YTD. Hut 8 Corp. (Nasdaq: HUT) follows at 67.75%, trading at $77.06, the highest share price among the top ten listed miners by market valuation.
Riot Platforms (Nasdaq: RIOT) is up 47.04%, and both Applied Digital (Nasdaq: APLD) and Core Scientific (Nasdaq: CORZ) are sitting on gains above 40%. These aren’t modest beats. These are companies posting equity gains four to six times larger than bitcoin’s move, in the opposite direction. The reason is AI.
The sector has undergone a fundamental repositioning in early 2026. Miners carry assets that hyperscalers urgently want: access to low-cost power, industrial-scale sites, and grid expertise. Companies that have moved quickly to convert that infrastructure into AI and high-performance computing (HPC) data centers have been rewarded. Those that haven’t are being left behind.
Miners already had the hardest parts figured out when they started mining bitcoin. They’ve spent years solving problems that would take a traditional real estate developer or tech company years to replicate: permitting large power loads, negotiating with utilities, building out substations, managing heat dissipation at scale, and running 24/7 operations with high uptime requirements. Those aren’t small things. Power procurement alone can take years and can halt most data center projects before they start.

Terawulf is the clearest example of the trade working. The company has locked in over $12.8 billion in contracted HPC revenue through long-term leases with Google-backed Fluidstack and Core42, with sites in Hawesville, Kentucky, and Morgantown, Maryland, scaling toward 1 GW of available power. HPC now drives over half of annual revenues. The stock reflects it.
Hut 8 has taken a similar path, anchoring a $7 billion, 15-year lease at its River Bend campus with Anthropic and Fluidstack as counterparties, while building an 8.5 GW development pipeline across due diligence, exclusivity, and active construction stages.
Core Scientific has also seen similar execution. The company has secured roughly $10–12 billion in contracted revenue through Coreweave partnerships spanning 590 MW of critical IT load across six sites, including a $1.2 billion expansion in Denton, Texas. Analysts forecast HPC driving approximately 70% of 2026 revenue.
Applied Digital has signed multiple 15-year leases with Coreweave for 400 MW of critical IT load at its North Dakota campus, generating roughly $11 billion in contracted revenue and running HPC hosting margins above 25%. IREN Limited (IREN), sitting atop the top ten list by market cap at $16.71 billion, has a Microsoft AI cloud partnership valued in the billions and a 4.5 GW power pipeline, with HPC revenue projected to reach 71% of total by year-end.
Cipher Digital (Nasdaq: CIFR), now fully rebranded from Cipher Mining, has exited most of its bitcoin operations entirely, replacing them with a $9.3 billion contracted HPC backlog anchored by a 300 MW AWS deal and a Google-backstopped Fluidstack agreement.
Not every name is at the same stage, and that’s not necessarily a problem. MARA Holdings (MARA) and Riot Platforms (RIOT) are posting YTD returns of 29.56% and 47.04%, respectively. Solid numbers by any standard, even if they sit below the group leaders. Both companies are moving, just on a slightly different timeline.
Riot holds 1.7 GW of power capacity across its Texas sites, including Corsicana and Rockdale, and has begun construction of 112 MW of AI-ready core-and-shell capacity at Corsicana as part of a planned 600 MW buildout. MARA is taking a different approach, building international exposure through its majority stake in Exaion, an EDF subsidiary that brings European AI and HPC cloud expertise into the fold.
Bitdeer (Nasdaq: BTDR) sits at the bottom of the year-to-date table at just 7.62%, still down 6.40% over the past five trading days. The company is building what it describes as Norway’s largest AI data center. A 180 MW facility in Tydal targeting Nvidia Vera Rubin GPUs, and is converting sites in Ohio and Washington State, but the pipeline hasn’t translated into contracted revenue at the scale investors are rewarding elsewhere.
Cleanspark (Nasdaq: CLSK), up 25.88% YTD, is further along than Bitdeer with over 1.8 GW of power under contract and advanced discussions with hyperscale tenants, but initial AI deployments aren’t targeted until 2026–2027.
The takeaway from January through April is straightforward. The miners winning in 2026 are the ones that closed hyperscaler deals first. Power capacity alone isn’t enough — the market is pricing contracted backlog, delivery timelines, and the quality of counterparties. Terawulf, Hut 8, Core Scientific, Applied Digital, IREN, and Cipher Digital have all demonstrated some version of that. Others are working to catch up. Bitcoin‘s price direction from here will matter, but for the leading names in this group, it’s becoming a secondary consideration.
Crypto
FBI investigating disappearance of high-profile crypto investor’s father
The FBI has joined an investigation into the suspicious disappearance of a Southern California grandfather, which his family believes could be tied to their success in the cryptocurrency business.
Federal authorities recently became involved in the probe for missing Rancho Cucamonga resident Naiping Hou, 74, who is the father of noted hedge fund and cryptocurrency investor Wen Hou. The son serves as the chief investment officer at Coincident Capital. In 2022, Wen Hou and his wife, who live in Las Vegas, contributed $1.1 million in cryptocurrency to the USC Keck School of Medicine to help fund research on heart disease.
Naiping Hou was last seen in his hometown on March 18, 2025. He was officially reported missing on May 4, 2025, after which detectives determined someone impersonated him using his cellphone for over a month.
“Possible foul play is suspected, as his bank accounts were depleted prior to law enforcement being notified about his disappearance,” the FBI officials said in a news release.
His loved ones previously told KABC that the kidnapping could be tied to the family’s success in crypto.

“I miss him a lot,” Wen Hou said about his father in July 2025. “He’s sort of a guide to my life.”
In a previous LA Times interview, Wen Hou said he became concerned about his father in April 2025 when his text messages in the family group chat began to feel robotic. Naiping Hou became increasingly withdrawn through the messages, less communicative and refused to visit his grandchildren, he claimed.
Wen Hou’s concerns escalated around his father’s May 3 birthday when he began to suspect that someone else may have been controlling his phone. He said his father declined to travel to Las Vegas to see family and did not respond to calls. Instead of reacting warmly to a gift of handmade Chinese noodles sent to his Rancho Cucamonga home, a text from Naiping Hou’s phone simply read, “Yes I received it.”
The out-of-state son asked family friends to check on his father the following day. Upon arrival, they reportedly found the unopened noodle package left on the doorstep. Inside the home, they discovered that the residence appeared to have been largely cleared out, with all furniture removed and a poorly done interior paint job.
Investigators determined that someone had been using Naiping Hou’s phone to impersonate him and carry out extensive fraudulent bank transactions, including purchasing gold bars online. Wen Hou said that was unusual since his father was not tech-savvy and had never bought gold before.
A tip website Wen Hou created to find his missing father remains active, offering a $250,000 reward.
Anyone with information on Naiping Hou’s case is asked to contact their local FBI office or the nearest American Embassy or Consulate.
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