Lifestyle
Forget flowers: These ancient plants attract pollinators by getting hot
Beetles (Rhopalotria furfuracea) visit a male cone of the cycad plant Zamia furfuracea, whose cones produce heat during pollination.
Michael Calonje
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Michael Calonje
Some of the earliest plants attracted pollinators by producing heat that made these plants glow with infrared light, according to a new set of experiments.
The work, published in the journal Science, suggests that long before brightly colored flowers evolved, these ancient plants would metabolically rev themselves up when they had pollen at the ready. Nocturnal insects such as beetles could then see that heat from afar and home in on the target.
These heat-producing plants, called cycads, exist today in tropical forests around the world, although they’re one of the most endangered plant groups.
“Some people call them dinosaur plants because they were much more dominant when the dinosaurs were around,” says Wendy Valencia-Montoya, a cycad expert at Harvard University.
Fossils from over 200 million years ago, compared to cycads that exist today, show that “the plants look exactly the same,” she says. “So they haven’t changed much in hundreds of millions of years.”
They’re related to pines, and male and female plants each produce fleshy, pine-cone-like structures that contain the pollen and the seeds. “That’s something very unique among this group of ancient plants,” says Valencia-Montoya, who says these are the oldest known plants that have pollen.
A couple of centuries ago, botanists noticed that these plants produced heat in their reproductive structures. Compared to the ambient air temperature, they can be hotter by 15 to 25 degrees Fahrenheit, or even more.
“We think of producing heat as something that mammals do, or birds do, but in fact, plants can do it too,” she says, although it’s not common in the plant world and takes a lot of energy.
In these plants, the heat was thought to be a byproduct of metabolic processes. Or, maybe the heat volatilized the scent of the plant, much like plugging an air freshener into an electrical outlet to generate heat that sends scent around a room. Research done in the last couple of decades has shown that male and female cones heat up at slightly different times, which could send pollinators moving from one cone to the other.
To try to understand more about what was going on, Valencia-Montoya and her colleagues painted some pollinating beetles with fluorescent markers to watch when the beetles went to the plant. And they found that the beetles were clearly going to the plant cones when they heated up.
This thermal image shows two male cycad cones releasing pollen. This plant’s cones heat up during pollen-release.
Wendy Valencia-Montoya
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Wendy Valencia-Montoya
To decouple the heat from other potential signals that these plants produce, like scent and humidity, her team used 3-D printing to make some simulated pollen cones. These fake plant structures were hollow inside, and got filled up with heated sand.
The fake cones glowed in the infrared much like real plants. “It was quite striking, when we saw it in the field,” says Valencia-Montoya, who says the fake plants were deployed outside at the Montgomery Botanical Center in Coral Gables, Florida.
Using these fake plants, the researchers figured out a couple of tricks to see if insects were attracted to the infrared glow, rather than the tactile sensation of heat itself. For example, in one experiment, they wrapped the cone with plastic wrap that is transparent to infrared light. Insects could see the infrared light but not get close enough to the cone to actually feel the heat.
What they found is that the infrared glow, by itself, was enough to attract hundreds of pollinating beetles.
And when they looked at those beetles, they found that they have specialized antennae that have evolved to detect slight differences in temperature — similar to the heat-sensing receptors used by snakes to detect prey.
What’s more, it turns out that the beetles’ antennae seem to be tuned to the exact temperature range deployed by their host plant, since different beetle species frequent different cycad species.
“Infrared radiation is perhaps the oldest discovered pollination signal,” says Nicholas Bellono of Harvard University, one of the authors of the new study.
Back when plants first evolved pollen, the insects that were around were nocturnal and had poor vision, says Valencia-Montoya. “So it makes a lot of sense that a signal like heat was guiding them.”
But as new groups emerged that were active in the day and had better vision, like butterflies and bees, “it makes more sense for plants to change their signaling strategy to also tap into the sensory systems of these more recent pollinators,” she says, adding that in evolution, there’s a constant dance back and forth between plants and their pollinators. Once color became a possible signal, flowering plants had an immense range of color combinations at their disposal, allowing them to rapidly diversify.
These researchers used “a powerhouse of techniques” to prove that the temperature of cycad’s heat-producing cones is intimately related to attracting pollinators, and that this association is ancient, says Roger Seymour, with the University of Adelaide in Australia, who wasn’t part of the research team: “This is an important contribution.”
Seymour thinks that heat could have more than one role, however, and the chance for a warm-up may be a bonus for beetles that require high body temperatures for activity. “Heat can be a direct energy reward to insect pollinators which may remain inside a thermogenic flower for much longer than insects visiting non-thermogenic species,” he says.
Irene Terry at Tthe University of Utah, an ecologist who specializes in cycads and their insect interactions but wasn’t part of this research team, says it’s only been relatively recently that people realized these ancient plants even had pollinators, rather than just spreading their pollen with the wind.
Particular odorants seem to be important pollinator attractants, she says, noting that these plants can smell like everything from bubblegum to bell peppers. Still, this study shows “in the most beautiful way” that infrared is also key.
“I was not surprised at all that infrared was involved,” says Terry, given that other insects like mosquitoes use infrared to find their way to a target. “There’s a range of things that insects can see that we don’t.”
Imagine, says Bellono, being a prehistoric beetle trying to navigate the darkened environment in the early evening, and seeing various plants start to glow red.
“The infrared is an entirely different world that we don’t experience,” he says. “I think that’s a cool thing to think about, going back in time, that this signal was around when the dinosaurs were there, long before us. And the beetles still use it to this day and are still experiencing that world.”
Nearly 280 filmmakers entered the Internet Archive’s Public Domain Film Remix Contest this year. Above, a still from King of Jazz. The 1930 film was used as source material in several contest submissions.
Universal Pictures/Internet Archive
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Universal Pictures/Internet Archive
One of the most unusual of the creative treasures to enter the public domain this month is King of Jazz. The plotless, experimental 1930 musical film shot in early Technicolor centers on influential bandleader Paul Whiteman, nicknamed “The King of Jazz.”
In one memorable scene, the portly, mustachioed Whiteman opens a small bag and winks at the camera as miniature musicians file out one after another like a colony of ants and take their places on an ornate, table-top bandstand.
A new video based on clips from King of Jazz has won this year’s Public Domain Film Remix Contest — an annual competition that invites filmmakers from around the world to reimagine often long-forgotten literary classics, films, cartoons, music, and visual art that are now in the public domain. This means creators can use these materials freely, without copyright restrictions. In 2026, works created in 1930 entered the public domain.
Titled Rhapsody, Reimagined, the roughly two-minute video captures the King of Jazz‘s surreal quality: Cookie-cutter rows of musicians, showgirls, office workers and random furniture cascade across the screen as Whiteman’s winking face looks on.
“I wanted to transform the figures and bodies into more dream-like shapes through collage and looping and repetition,” said Seattle-based filmmaker Andrea Hale, who created the piece in collaboration with composer Greg Hardgrave. For video artists, Hale said discovering what’s new in the public domain each January is a thrill. “We’re always looking for things to draw from,” Hale said. “Opening that up to a bigger spread of materials is amazing. That’s the dream.”
A massive repository of content
The Internet Archive, the San Francisco-based nonprofit library behind the contest, digitizes and provides public access to a massive repository of content, including many materials used by contest participants. “These materials have often just been in film canisters for decades,” said digital librarian Brewster Kahle, who founded the Internet Archive in 1996.
This year’s submissions range from a reworking of the 1930 film The Blue Angel starring Betty Boop — another public domain entrant this year — instead of Marlene Dietrich, to an AI-generated take on the 1930 Nancy Drew book The Mystery at Lilac Inn.
Kahle said the Internet Archive received nearly 280 entries this time around, the highest number since the competition launched six years ago. “Things are not just musty, old archival documentation of the past,” Kahle said. “People are bringing them to life in new and different ways, without fear of being sued.”
The public domain in the era of AI
Lawsuits have become a growing concern for artists and copyright holders, especially with the rise of generative AI. Recent years have seen a surge in online video takedowns and copyright infringement disputes.
Media companies are trying to address the problem through deals with tech firms, such as Disney and OpenAI’s plan, announced late last year, to introduce a service allowing users to create short videos based on copyrighted characters, including Cinderella and Darth Vader.
“On the one hand, these licensing agreements seem quite a clean solution to thorny legal questions,” said Jennifer Jenkins, director of the Center for the Study of the Public Domain at Duke Law School. “But what’s exciting about the public domain is that material, after a long, robust 95-year copyright term, is just simply free for anyone — without a team of lawyers, without a licensing agreement, without having to work for Disney or OpenAI — to just put online,” Jenkins said.
Jenkins also pointed out an interesting twist for people who create new works using materials from the public domain. “You actually get a copyright in your remix,” she said. “Just like Disney has copyrights in all of its remakes of wonderful public domain works like Snow White or Cinderella.” (The Brothers Grimm popularized these two characters in their 19th century collection Grimm’s Fairy Tales. But their roots are much deeper, going back to European folklore collections of the 1600s and beyond.)
However, this only applies to works created by humans — U.S. copyright law currently doesn’t recognize works authored by AI. And Jenkins further cautioned that creators only get a copyright in their new creative contributions to the remix, and not the underlying material.
This year’s Public Domain Film Remix Contest winner Andrea Hale said she’s using a Creative Commons license for Rhapsody, Reimagined. This means the filmmaker retains the copyright to her work but grants permissions that allow other people to freely use, share, and build upon it. “I’m keeping with the spirit of the public domain,” Hale said.
Mitt Romney’s Sister-In-Law
Suicide Note In Book of Mormon, Xanax In System
Published
Mitt Romney‘s sister-in-law left a handwritten suicide note tucked inside a Book of Mormon and had Xanax in her system when she died … according to the L.A. County Medical Examiner.
The ME’s report says detectives discovered a Book of Mormon on the front passenger seat of Carrie‘s car. In the final pages of the book, authorities say Carrie left a handwritten suicide note. Medications were also found inside the vehicle.
The report states Carrie had 6.3 ng/mL of Xanax in her system at the time of her death. A witness told first responders Carrie was seen pacing on the top level of the parking structure, watching security cameras, and looking over the edge of the parapet. The report also states surveillance footage captured her final moments.
The medical examiner’s findings note the injury occurred when she fell backward from a seated position on the rooftop parapet.
As we reported … Carrie died from blunt traumatic injuries after falling from the rooftop of a parking structure in Valencia, California, back in October.
Carrie’s husband, Scott Romney — Mitt’s brother — had reported her missing to the Sheriff’s Department. He told authorities she previously drove her car off a cliff two years earlier and had struggled with anxiety, per the report.
At the time of her death, Carrie was also in the middle of a divorce. Scott filed in June, citing “irreconcilable differences.” The couple married in 2016, and Carrie was Scott’s third wife.
This is the last year the Sundance Film Festival will be held in Park City, Utah. It is moving to Boulder, Colo., in 2027. Above, the Egyptian Theatre on Main Street in Park City.
Mandalit del Barco/NPR
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Mandalit del Barco/NPR
The Sundance Film Festival begins for the last time in Park City, Utah before heading to Boulder, Colo., next year. It’s a bittersweet finale for the country’s premier independent film festival, founded by Robert Redford in 1978.
With a gala, the festival plans to pay tribute to the late actor and director, who died of natural causes in September.
“Before he passed earlier this year, [Redford] shared with us this quote: ‘Everybody has a story,’” says the festival’s director, Eugene Hernandez. “This notion is such a great framing for a festival that has always been about finding and sharing with audiences the stories that come from all over the world.”
This year, the festival will screen films that got their starts at Sundance, including Little Miss Sunshine, which went on to be nominated for best picture at the 2007 Oscars.
The festival will also screen a remastered print of the 1969 movie Downhill Racer, in which Redford plays a champion skier. Redford was also a producer on this indie film.
“He would tell this story year after year about getting Downhill Racer made,” recalls Sundance senior programmer John Nein. “It became a way that he understood the notion of protecting independence and protecting the artistic voice of a film. He often used that when he talked to emerging filmmakers, to relate to the struggles that they had in getting their films made the way that they wanted to.”
Nein says one way to recognize that legacy is by programming 40 percent of the slate from first-time filmmakers. More than 16,200 films were submitted from 164 countries. Throughout the year, the Sundance Institute hosts labs and programs and provides grants and fellowships for independent filmmakers.
Over the years, Sundance has been a launching pad for filmmakers such as Quentin Tarantino, Ava DuVernay, The Coen brothers, Ryan Coogler, Chloe Zhao and Paul Thomas Anderson.
Another filmmaker whose career Sundance supported is Rachel Lambert, who says she was inspired by a film Redford directed: Ordinary People.
“It’s a profound legacy a single human being can leave an entire nation’s culture,” she says of Redford. “It’s remarkable.”
Lambert will premiere her newest film, Carousel, a love story starring Chris Pine and Jenny Slate.
Also showing at Sundance: documentaries about Chicano theater pioneer Luis Valdez, singer Courtney Love, tennis star Billie Jean King, and South African leader Nelson Mandela.
Among the features in competition is The Gallerist with Natalie Portman and Jenna Ortega.
Another is The Invite, with Olivia Wilde, Seth Rogen, Penélope Cruz and Edward Norton. The Invite‘s producer, David Permut, has been faithfully attending Sundance since the late 1980s, when he was in the audience for Steven Soderbergh’s breakout Sex, Lies, and Videotape.
“I never miss Sundance. I’ve been going every year since,” says Permut. “I stay for 10 days, I’m not in and out like a lot of people from Hollywood when they’re there with their film. I love the second week because it’s basically cinephiles from all over the world.”
Permut showed his first film at Sundance — Three of Hearts — in 1993. Last year, his film Twinless won the festival’s audience award.
“I have 57 movies I want to see this coming Sundance,” he says. “For me, it’s about discovery.”
Actress Hana Mana in The Friend’s House Is Here. The film was smuggled out of Iran to premiere at this year’s Sundance Film Festival.
Alma Linda Films
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Alma Linda Films
Some filmmakers have gone to great lengths to get their work screened this year — including the Iranian film The Friend’s House is Here.
The drama—set in Tehran’s underground art scene — was shot under the radar of Iranian authorities. Amid the country’s recent political turmoil, members of the film’s crew had to drive 11 hours to smuggle the film over the Turkish border to get it to the festival. According to the film’s publicist, the film’s two main actresses were not heard from for weeks during Iran’s recent unrest. The publicist says the women are now safe but have been denied visas by the United States to attend Sundance.
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