Science
How Running Shoes Have Evolved, From Ancient Greece to a Record-Breaking Marathon Time
When the messenger Pheidippides ran from the battlefield of Marathon to Athens to announce the Greek victory over the Persians in the 5th century B.C., he did it without shoes. His time was not officially tracked.
Millenniums later, at the London Marathon on Sunday, Sabastian Sawe and Yomif Kejelcha became the first to break the two-hour barrier in an official marathon, and Tigist Assefa set a women’s world record. All three did it in featherweight footwear.
The shoe, the Adidas Adizero Adios Pro Evo 3, weighs 97 grams, or about 3.4 ounces, depending on the shoe size. It’s the lightest running sneaker approved for competition. It sold out on Monday.
The race to near-weightlessness has been a driving force of innovation in running sneakers in the 25 centuries since shoeless Pheidippides’s run.
Heavier shoes are slower, a 2016 study showed, although that analysis was only for three-kilometer time trials. The study’s authors hid lead pellets in some Nike racing shoes and didn’t tell the subjects.
“When we added 100 grams per shoe, they ran about 1 percent slower, and when we added 300 grams, they ran about 3 percent slower,” said Rodger Kram, an emeritus professor of integrative physiology at the University of Colorado, Boulder. He called the 1 percent per 100 grams “a rule of toe.”
But it took many steps before running shoes evolved to the blistering pace they now allow.
‘The Platonic ideal’
Shoes once relied on leather, wood or metal reinforcements that were heavy and stiff. The rise of the rubber sole added flexibility and waterproofing. Better durability and grip were bonuses.
People could also run or walk in rubber soles without being heard. That’s why they’re called sneakers.
The first flat-soled rubber and canvas shoe was developed in 1868, almost 30 years after Charles Goodyear discovered the process of curing rubber called vulcanization. Converse and Keds made them popular in the 1920s.
“Converse All Stars are the Platonic ideal of the sneaker,” said Nicholas Smith, the author of “Kicks: The Great American Story of Sneakers.”
He noted they have not changed much.
“Canvas on top, rubber at the bottom.”
‘Chariots of Fire’
Competitive runners soon faced a trade-off: a heavier shoe with better traction or a lighter flat sole.
The heavier option, which transferred maximum force from the runner’s foot to the ground for acceleration, came from J.W. Foster of Bolton, England, who had the insight that led to the first metal spikes in shoes in the 1890s. Top British runners, including those competing in the 1924 Paris Olympics, wore these new spikes to notch their fastest times. Their story is told in “Chariots of Fire,” the Oscar-winning 1981 film.
It was at another Olympics, in Berlin, that Jesse Owens wore six-spiked shoes created by Adidas to become the most successful runner of the 1936 Games. His shoes, made of specially tanned calf leather and cowhide, weighed 201 grams.
A broken waffle iron
Running tracks made of urethane, a rubber compound, began to emerge in the 1960s. When one was installed in 1969 at the University of Oregon, the track coach, Bill Bowerman, found that runners’ spikes dug in too deep while flat shoes offered too little traction.
Having breakfast one morning in 1971, he noticed that the grid pattern on the waffle iron his wife was using might just be what his runners needed to get a grip on the track.
He tried pouring liquid urethane into the waffle iron, but only managed to seal it shut. He kept trying other waffle irons until he had the mold he wanted, according to Nike archivists.
But Bowerman wanted more than grippier sneakers.
“He was also devoted to making the lightest running shoe possible,” said Elizabeth Semmelhack, the author of “Out of the Box: The Rise of Sneaker Culture.”
Bowerman’s shoe, which Nike called the Waffle Trainer, “stands out because it had an extremely thin rubber sole but with a high tread, and then the upper of the shoe was made out of nylon.”
The light weight also helped bring running to the masses.
“You can bet there wouldn’t be so many people running today if they had to carry all the extra baggage we had back then,” Bowerman, a Nike co-founder, said in 1979.
The waffle-pattern nubs on the soles compressed under weight and helped bring spring to a runner’s step. But they only hinted at how sneakers could be cushioned. For many runners, it was not enough.
Then Nike introduced ethylene-vinyl acetate, better known as EVA foam, on the heel of its Cortez shoe in 1972. EVA offered a thicker, air-infused layer of separation from the road and absorbed more of the shock. The age of adding thick slabs of rubber for cushioning was over.
That led to a new quest that continues today: How much cushioning can you build into a shoe?
Lighter than foam
Sneaker makers next turned to a gas and a semisolid to help spread the energy of a foot’s impact with the ground.
In 1979, the Nike Air Tailwind began the airbag era, in which pressurized gas is stored in a flexible urethane bag within the sole.
Asics pioneered gel cushioning technology in 1986 with its silicone-based shock absorption. Nike countered in 1987 with the Air Max 1, which had a “window” in the sole designed to show off the air pocket. “At the time that was the cutting edge,” Mr. Smith said.
Though air is lighter than foam, it had to be kept in a rubber vessel, which added weight. So did adding silicone gel packets to the heel and forefoot.
While air bubbles felt more springy, and gel more dampening, they both were able to absorb shocks longer than the standard foam.
An icon of the 1990s tackled a different problem: how laces become loosened during a run. Reebok, building upon its wildly successful Pump basketball sneakers, which could be inflated with the press of a button on the tongue, introduced the Instapump Fury, a colorful, open-paneled, split-soled running sneaker.
“The Instapump used an air bladder that could fit your particular foot, the nuances of your own foot, very, very closely,” Ms. Semmelhack said. “Then you didn’t have to adjust any lacing throughout your run or at any time. So it was very innovative.”
Rise of the super shoes
But as new technologies made foam lighter, shoemakers soon couldn’t get enough of it.
One brand, Hoka, wedged so much cushy foam into its soles, beginning in 2009, that the shoes looked swollen. Runners could hardly “feel the ground anymore,” Smith said. The company’s designs helped push amateur runners to chunkier shoes.
But it was the thick-soled Nike Vaporflys that captured the most attention. They came with a carbon-fiber plate in the midsole that was very light and gave stability to all the squishy foam. The plate stores and releases energy with each stride, and is meant to spring runners forward.
The Vaporflys also use polyether block amide, or PEBA, a bouncier, lighter foam. The twin technologies led to the nickname “super shoes.”
“There was concern that this additional innovation in the running shoe was the equivalent of doping,” Semmelhack said. The shoes cushioned the feet of all three medalists in the men’s marathon at the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics. The New York Times found in 2019 that the shoes gave a significant advantage, but they were never banned.
Adidas used its lightest foam in the sole of the Adizero Adios Pro Evo 3, which were worn by Sunday’s record-breaking marathoners. It also said that the shoe has carbon fiber rods to mimic the human foot’s bone structure.
In other words, closer to the bare feet in Pheidippides’s run.
Science
Warning of cuts to medical services, L.A. health officials ask state for emergency funds
The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services has joined a chorus of California hospitals and health systems lobbying the state for a $500-million emergency payment to public hospitals bracing for massive financial losses.
The California Assn. of Public Hospitals and Health Systems is requesting a one-time general fund payment in the 2026-27 budget to help cover inpatient care for fee-for-service Medi-Cal patients at the state’s 17 public hospitals.
While the exact percentage of the $500 million allocated to each hospital will depend on inpatient claims, the county expects that roughly 25%, or $125 million, will end up at Los Angeles County hospitals, said Dr. Christina Ghaly, director of LA Health Services.
“That’s the money that is really necessary to serve as a stopgap and continue that lifeline that the public hospitals desperately need, particularly with the state’s proposed shift of undocumented individuals from managed care into fee-for-service,” Ghaly said.
Ghaly praised county voters for passing Measure ER, which will provide an estimated $220 million annually for the next five years to the county health system through a new half-cent sales tax, Ghaly said.
But it’s not enough to stanch what the county estimates will be a $700-million annual loss by the 2028-29 fiscal year.
LA Health Services is the largest public health system in the state and second-largest in the nation. It serves as a safety net for the county’s 10 million residents, providing healthcare regardless of an individual’s ability to pay.
More than 80% of the system’s patients rely on Medi-Cal, Los Angeles General Medical Center Chief Executive Jorge Orozco told a state Senate committee in March.
The One Big Beautiful Bill Act, which President Trump signed into law last summer, alters Medicaid eligibility requirements and includes about $1 trillion in federal Medicaid reductions over 10 years, according to the Legislative Analyst’s Office. As a result, California is expected to lose tens of billions in total funding for Medi-Cal, the state’s Medicaid program.
About 660,000 people in Los Angeles County are expected to lose Medi-Cal coverage, “but they will not stop needing healthcare,” Orozco said in March. “They will still come to our emergency rooms for everything from routine illness to life threatening conditions. And safety net hospital systems like ours will be forced to absorb those costs.”
County health officials have enacted hiring freezes, consolidated services, reduced overtime and taken other cost-cutting measures in anticipation of the losses, resulting in about $230 million in savings.
“But we need to be clear: we cannot cut our way out of a funding loss of this magnitude,” the department said in a statement released this week. “Without help from the State, we will be forced to consider options no one wants, reduced patient services, staff layoffs, and potential facility closures.”
The county has not yet identified specific services for closure, Ghaly said.
“Our focus is entirely on preventing the harm that would come before we have to make those tough choices,” she added.
A memo on the department’s fiscal outlook prepared for the Board of Supervisors sounded the alarm in April.
“For the patients we serve, losing Medi-Cal doesn’t mean they stop getting sick — it means losing access to care. Health Services will still be here, but with over 600,000 more uninsured patients in LA County alone, the strain will be felt across our health system and across every emergency room in Los Angeles County,” the memo read.
“Without substantial new revenue sources, Health Services will have no alternative but to consider planning for service curtailments — including possible facility closures and staff layoffs — beginning in early 2027.”
Science
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By Cynthia Silva
June 10, 2026
Science
UC Davis favored less qualified Black, Latino med school applicants, Justice Department claims
The U.S. Justice Department has accused the UC Davis School of Medicine of choosing race “over merit, skill, and competence” in its admissions process, favoring Black and Latino students even when they weren’t as qualified as white and Asian applicants.
The department said its findings, announced Wednesday afternoon, were based on a six-month investigation by its Civil Rights Division. The Justice Department said it found that the Northern California university violated the Supreme Court’s 2023 ruling against race-based determinations in admissions. The findings have been contested by the school.
“Davis Med’s actions reflect both unabashed contempt for the rule of law and plain disregard for the potential public health consequences of putting race over merit, skill, and competence,” Assistant Atty. Gen. Harmeet K. Dhillon of the Justice Department’s Civil Rights Division said in a statement.
“The Department will not allow schools to violate federal law without consequence.”
A spokesperson said the university was “disappointed” with the report and its findings.
“UC Davis School of Medicine strongly disagrees with any characterization of its admissions practices as discriminatory or inconsistent with applicable law,” a school statement read. “The report’s findings do not accurately reflect the school’s rigorous, individualized, and merit-based admissions process and our firm commitment to complying with applicable federal and state antidiscrimination laws.”
The department outlined its case in a 12-page letter to an attorney representing UC Davis, claiming the university violated Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, as interpreted by the Supreme Court’s 2023 Students for Fair Admissions vs. Harvard.
Title VI prohibits institutions receiving federal funding from discriminating based on race, while the 2023 decision banned affirmative action in higher-education admissions.
The Justice Department said its investigation found the medical school “adopted admissions practices with the express purpose of circumventing” the 2023 ruling.
That method was the “Davis Scale,” the department said. The letter called the scale a “continuous measure of socioeconomic disadvantage” that includes parental income and education, growing up in a medically underserved area and other socioeconomic variables.
The Justice Department included UC Davis literature that said the scale had allowed the school to triple the enrollment of Black and Latino students.
In 2024, Davis’ medical school became the third most racially diverse medical school in the country, the Justice Department claimed.
Conversely, the department said its review of medical school admissions data from 2023 to 2025 found that 93% of white and certain Asian applicants had MCAT scores at or above those of the average Black student.
It also showed that Black and Hispanic applicants were admitted at rates up to six times higher than whites and Asians, despite consistently having, on average, lower academic qualifications, according to the department.
The Justice Department said it is attempting to enter into a voluntary agreement with UC Davis to bring the medical school into compliance. The department would eventually sue the medical school if such a resolution is not found.
UC Davis did not indicate whether it would comply with the Justice Department.
“UC Davis is fully committed to meeting the critical healthcare needs of California, particularly those in underserved and under-resourced areas,” the school said in a statement.
The finding mirrors similar investigations into medical schools at UCLA and UC San Diego.
The Justice Department said last month that UCLA’s David Geffen School of Medicine intentionally used race for the last three years to discriminate against white and Asian applicants during admissions.
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