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When is forgetting normal — and when is it worrisome? A neuroscientist weighs in

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When is forgetting normal — and when is it worrisome? A neuroscientist weighs in

Cognitive neuroscientist Charan Ranganath says the human brain isn’t programmed to remember everything. Rather, it’s designed to “carry what we need and to deploy it rapidly when we need it.”

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Cognitive neuroscientist Charan Ranganath says the human brain isn’t programmed to remember everything. Rather, it’s designed to “carry what we need and to deploy it rapidly when we need it.”

Bulat Silvia/iStock / Getty Images Plus

When cognitive neuroscientist Charan Ranganath meets someone for the first time, he’s often asked, “Why am I so forgetful?” But Ranganath says he’s more interested in what we remember, rather than the things we forget.

“We’re not designed to carry tons and tons of junk with us. I don’t know that anyone would want to remember every temporary password that they’ve ever had,” he says. “I think what [the human brain is] designed for is to carry what we need and to deploy it rapidly when we need it.”

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Ranganath directs the Dynamic Memory Lab at the University of California, Davis, where he’s a professor of psychology and neuroscience. In the new book, Why We Remember, he writes about the fundamental mechanisms of memory — and why memories often change over time.

Ranganath recently wrote an op-ed for The New York Times in which he reflected on President Biden’s memory gaffes — and the role that memory plays in the current election cycle.

“I’m just not in the position to say anything about the specifics of [either Biden or Trump’s] memory problems,” he says. “This is really more of an issue of people understanding what happens with aging. And, one of the nice things about writing this editorial is I got a lot of feedback from people who felt personally relieved by this because they’re worried about their own memories.”

Interview highlights

On instituting a cognitive test for candidates running for president

Why We Remember, by Charan Ranganath
Why We Remember, by Charan Ranganath

I think it would be a good idea to have a comprehensive physical and mental health evaluation that’s fairly transparent. We certainly have transparency or seek transparency about other things like a candidate’s finances, for instance. And obviously health is a very important factor. And I think at the end of the day, we’ll still be in a position of saying, “OK, what’s enough? What’s the line between healthy and unhealthy?” But I think it’s important to do because yes, as we get older we do have memory problems. …

On why you can sometimes only remember the first letter of something, like a name

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You get what’s called partial retrieval, where you get a piece of the information but not the whole thing. … Memories compete with each other. And this is true for a name. This could be true for memory, for an event. And so if you have learned multiple names that start with the letter K, now what happens is you have this competition where essentially they’re fighting with each other.

On the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

They call it the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon … where you know the information is there, you’re aware of something, but it just doesn’t. You don’t have proof of its existence. You’re just working on this complete faith that it exists. There’s many reasons why this happened. One of the big ones is you pull out the wrong information. When you pull out the wrong information, what happens is it makes it much harder to find the right information. So in other words, if you’re looking for someone named “Fred” and you accidentally pull out “Frank” and you know that’s not the name. Now, Frank is very big in your consciousness, and it’s fighting against the other memory that you have. And so as a result, you’re going to have some trouble. Now, later on, what happens is your mindset changes and you’re no longer stuck in that previous mistake. And that’s why it can pop up. So what can sometimes happen is that we’re looking for something, but then we get the wrong thing. And that leads us so far in the wrong direction that the competition in memory works against us.

On how interruption hurts our ability to remember

This is the reality of modern life, is that we’re constantly being interrupted. Now, sometimes those interruptions are in our world and not of our own making. So any person with a newborn child, for instance, can relate to this idea of you’re trying to do something and all of a sudden your child starts crying and your brain is telling you, “Forget everything else. Let’s focus on this.” Then there’s things that we do to ourselves, like, we just have other thoughts that come into our head or we start daydreaming about things. But then I think the most insidious of all are the alerts and the distractions that we put upon ourselves with smartphones and smartwatches where there’s things constantly buzzing and grabbing our attention, and then people start to get bad habits like checking texts and emails. For instance, I’ll sit in academic talks and I see people checking email during a talk, and I can guarantee you they’re not remembering either the email or the talk after they’ve left the place.

On how stress interferes with memory

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Stress has a bunch of complex effects on memory. So if you have a severely stressful experience, sometimes you can remember that experience better than if it was not stressful. And so this happens a lot in cases of traumatic memories. But the other part of it is that stress makes it harder to pull out the information you need when you need it. … It shuts down the prefrontal cortex. And under those states of stress, you’re prioritizing things that are more immediate, your knee-jerk responses to things. And so that makes it harder to remember stuff that happened before you were under stress.

Then there’s the issue of chronic stress, where we know that chronic stress can be actually neurotoxic for areas of the brain that are important for memory, like the prefrontal cortex and another area called the hippocampus. And that is really, I think, part of the problem that you see in people with PTSD, for instance. If you’re under chronic stress for a long period of time, there’s a whole series of stress-related hormones that are bathing your brain in these stress-related hormones. And what can happen is, this can be causing damage to areas like the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex so that they’re no longer functioning as efficiently as you would hope they would. And you can see this in many different animal models of stress.

On why sleep is so important to memory

One of the fascinating things about sleep is we tend to think, oh, nothing’s happening. I’m not getting anything done. But your brain is hugely at work. There are all these different stages of sleep where you can see these symphony of waves, where different parts of the brain are talking to each other, essentially. And so, we know for a fact that some of these stages of sleep, what happens is the brain will flush out toxins, like the amyloid protein that can build up over the course of a day. So just by virtue of that function, sleep is very important. But then on top of it, what we can see is that the neurons that were active during a particular experience, have come back alive during sleep. And so there seems to be some processing of memories that happen during sleep, and that the processing of memories can sometimes lead to some parts of the memory being strengthened, or sometimes you’re better able to integrate what happened recently with things that happened in the past. And so, sleep scientist Matt Walker likes to say that sleep converts memory into wisdom, for instance.

[Sleep is] an investment. Because you’re depriving your brain of all this, information processing that can happen in your sleep. And I do believe it’s controversial, but I do believe in the idea that sometimes you can wake up and through that memory processing, actually have the ability to solve a problem that you couldn’t do when you were, before you went to sleep. I mean, the other part of sleep, I think that’s very important is when we’re sleep deprived it’s just terrible for memory. All the circuitry that’s important for memory does not function as well, and memory performance really declines.

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Sam Briger and Thea Chaloner produced and edited this interview for broadcast. Bridget Bentz, Molly Seavy-Nesper and Carmel Wroth adapted it for the web.

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Nearly half of Americans surveyed don’t know what America 250 commemorates

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Nearly half of Americans surveyed don’t know what America 250 commemorates

People visit the Liberty Bell on the eve of Independence Day in Philadelphia on July 3, 2025. The crack in this symbol of U.S. freedom echoes the paradox between national pride and civic ignorance revealed in a new national poll.

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A new national poll reveals a striking paradox in public sentiment ahead of America’s 250th anniversary: a disconnect between Americans’ strong patriotic pride and their lack of civic knowledge.

According to a survey from the libertarian Cato Institute think tank of more than 2,000 U.S. adults conducted in late June, 86% of respondents said they are grateful to be American and 70% believe the nation’s founding principles remain relevant.

However, nearly half of Americans (46%) don’t know that America’s 250th anniversary commemorates the adoption of the Declaration of Independence.

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This civic ignorance extends to basic governance: Nearly 60% do not know the main purpose of the U.S. Constitution is to limit government power, and do not know why the colonies declared independence from Great Britain.

Furthermore, the report highlights deep anxieties about the future of American liberty.

The majority of those surveyed believe the country has strayed from its founding principles, and more than half fear the U.S. could cease to be a free country within the next 50 years, citing corruption and the abuse of power as primary threats. The majority of both Republicans and Democrats share these fears.

The concerns are especially pronounced among Gen Z respondents, who exhibited both the lowest levels of civic knowledge and the least favorable views of the nation’s founders. The majority of Gen Z failed to cite the adoption of the Declaration of Independence as the source of the 250th anniversary.

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“The lack of civic knowledge is a great disaster,” said Coe Professor of History and American Studies and Professor of Political Science Emeritus at Stanford University Jack Rakove. “Any democratic system of government to succeed requires having an informed electorate.”

The Pulitzer Prize-winning authority on the drafting of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence blamed the problem on the fragmented media landscape and schools prioritizing STEM subjects over civics and history.

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L.A. Affairs: He wanted L.A. I wanted New York. A panic attack changed everything

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L.A. Affairs: He wanted L.A. I wanted New York. A panic attack changed everything

Unpacking my third suitcase in our new West Hollywood home, a sharp pain shot through my chest. I felt dizzy and short of breath before sprawling out on our mattress, which was still covered in plastic.

“What’s wrong?” David asked.

An hour later, on a gurney in the emergency room at Cedars-Sinai, I waited to be admitted overnight. What a great start to our new life — back in L.A. after seven years in New York City — David sleeping alone at our apartment while I was to keep close to the paddles and operating room in case what had just happened was a heart attack.

I was 33, practicing yoga and exercising almost daily. A few months earlier, my New York doctor noticed I had high blood pressure, and I was feeling terrible, so something clearly was going on. Was an artery blocked? Nope, the tests revealed; physically, I was fine. What had happened was a panic attack.

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“Your health will be better in L.A.,” David had promised before returning to L.A.

Now I took no pleasure in his being wrong.

After growing up in Temple City (hardly L.A.), I went on a high school trip to the Big Apple and knew it was where I needed to be.

Exactly five years later, the time to escape California arrived after a miserable breakup from a three-year relationship with a guy that I hid entirely from my family. I was desperate and depressed, down 15 pounds from not eating much, my diet consisting largely of cigarettes and red wine. At the Archstone, my Studio City apartment, I did ecstasy alone on a Wednesday. One has to take a good look at himself when he’s in his bedroom, by himself, rolling, and so I decided it was time to start over in New York.

On the other side of the country, I thought it was normal to hook up with a new guy every third night. Which I suppose, for a gay man who’d spent the first 27 years of his life denying his sexuality to a family he feared wouldn’t understand, it was. My self-esteem was in the gutter, though you wouldn’t have known it from the outside.

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After a three-digit number of hookups on Grindr, I met David, a guy who lived on the same Manhattan corner as I did. We did what people do on Grindr and hooked up a couple of times.

But one morning, we bumped into each other on 9th Avenue. I left our short chat feeling uplifted by how smiley and polite he was in daylight and while we were sober. That night, we went on our first date, and the rest is history. But I hid what I assumed wouldn’t be well-received.

“Let’s move back to L.A.,” he said after four years of life together in New York.

“I’m really not ready,” I said. I loved living in New York and never, ever expected to leave. He understood, but he wanted to return to “the coast.” I knew that in a healthy relationship, it couldn’t be just what I wanted. So eventually, we packed up and moved to an apartment on North Flores Street in West Hollywood.

And now, I was in the hospital.

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After having to cancel the welcome home party our L.A. friends had planned for us, and being released from Cedars, my life fell apart. But being the one who kept everything together, I kept it together better than most would, at least in the presence of others.

I’m fine, I told myself, but I worried my heart was broken, and there was something medically wrong with it. To heal it, I’d need to accept truths that I didn’t want to.

Growing up was devastatingly hard for me. Being gay and misunderstood, with the unacknowledged pain of it kept inside, was quite literally eating me alive. Being back in L.A. meant being near my past. I told my mom I was gay before leaving for New York. She said she still loved and accepted me, but to this day, the struggle has never been discussed or acknowledged. I knew I was a disappointment to my family.

I went to Westwood what felt like 70 times, and after visiting a bunch of UCLA’s specialists, I found myself in the office of a neurosurgeon who took one look at me and said, “You don’t belong here. What you’re suffering from is plain old anxiety, and you’re going to have to work with your therapist on this.”

“I have been,” I said, “and it’s not helping.” But before I finished, he had walked out the door.

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Before long, the panic attacks got so bad, I could hardly drive. David chauffeured me, under the palm trees and bright sun, around as much as his schedule allowed, and when he couldn’t, I made the best of it, lugging my laptop with me for the hour-long trek to yoga-teacher training at Equinox in the South Bay, using that extra time in the back of an Uber to write.

For almost my entire adult life, I’d been in therapy, but it was couples therapy with David where I felt supported enough to admit, first to myself, that I’d been terrified of being fully myself. I was afraid he’d leave me if he saw the real me. Secretly I had been keeping a lifetime of pain bottled up inside because of fear — I didn’t want to risk losing him by being too emotional or having too many feelings.

Three months after that therapy session, the pandemic arrived, and being together 100% of the time for the next year, I let him in fully. He didn’t run — instead, he proposed.

It’s been eight years since that neurologist, and six since I’ve been able to fully drive again. And here in L.A., in a city characterized by its distance, I have, with David, built a close chosen family that supports and fully understands me.

Now, I feel “at home” at our Spanish-style Hancock Park house, the one we bought because we wanted to start a family of our own, only after L.A. allowed me to heal and live peacefully, and now, anxiety free.

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Had David not dragged me back, I wouldn’t have learned what I did about myself, my story of origin and living a life that’s so beautiful and that’s so true to me.

And certainly, we wouldn’t be bringing our baby daughter, Lucy, named after Lucille Ball (who’s more Hollywood?), home in mid-July by way of surrogacy.

The author is a writer and coach who helps established business owners build lives that feel as good as they look. He lives in Hancock Park. He’s on Instagram: @iammattgerlach.

L.A. Affairs chronicles the search for romantic love in all its glorious expressions in the L.A. area, and we want to hear your true story. We pay $400 for a published essay. Email LAAffairs@latimes.com. You can find submission guidelines here. You can find past columns here.

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To be or not to be a parent : It’s Been a Minute

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To be or not to be a parent : It’s Been a Minute

Could you see your life just as easily with children as without? 

What if you’re not cut out for parenthood? What if you grow lonely in your old age? Or what if you have a loving partner, but you disagree on this choice? Deciding between parenthood and a child-free life requires clarity about your fears and deepest desires — no easy task. This episode, psychotherapist and author of the book, The Baby Decision, Merle Bombardieri, helps us get clear. She discusses minimizing regret, normalizing feeling ‘stuck’ and why waiting to have a baby at 38 may be best. 

Want more about the decision to have kids? 

Many women don’t want kids. And for good reason.
Why are people freaking out about the birth rate?

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Additional support for this episode came from Alexis Williams. It was edited by Neena Pathak. Our Supervising Producer is Cher Vincent. Our Executive Producer is Barton Girdwood. Our VP of Programming is Yolanda Sangweni.

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